Memory Flashcards
Nature of Memory : coding
Format in which info is stored in various memory stores
Nature of Memory : Capacity
Amount of information held in a memory store at a given time
Nature of Memory : Duration
Lengths of time information can held in a memory stor
Nature of Memory : STM
Limited capacity store
Nature of Memory : Coding of STM
Acoustic
Nature of Memory : Capacity of STM
7+ / - 2
Nature of Memory : Duration of STM
18-30s
Nature of Memory : LTM
Permanent memory store
Nature of Memory : Coding of LTM
Semantic
Nature of Memory : Capacity of LTM
Unlimited
Nature of Memory : Duration of LTM
Unlimited
NoM research : aim of (baddleys STM)
- explore coding in STM
NoM research : Prodedure (baddleys STM)
- recall list of 5 words immediately
- acoustically similar/dissimilar
- semantically similar/dissimilar
NoM research : Findings (STM)
Acoustically similar = harder recall
Semantically similar didn’t have much effect
NoM research : Conclusion (baddleys STM )
STM relies on acoustic coding
NoM research : Aim (baddeleys LTM)
Explore coding in LTM
NoM research : procedure (baddeleys LTM)
- recall list of 10 words after 20 mins
- same 4 categories
NoM research : findings (baddelys LTM)
- semantically similar harder that semantically dissimilar
- acoustically similar didn’t have an effect
NoM research : conclusion (baddeleys LTM)
- LTM primarily makes use of semantic coding
NoM research : aim ( Jacobs STM)
Investigate capacity of STM
NoM research : procedure ( Jacobs STM )
Participants had to recall string of digits in order until no more can remembered
NoM research : findings (Jacobs STM)
Digits = 9.3 Letters = 7.3
NoM research : conclusion (Jacobs STM)
STM has limited capacity
NoM research : aim (Miller STM)
Investigate capacity of STM
NoM research : procedure (Miller STM)
Observe daily practices
NoM research : findings (Miller STM)
- Things come in sevens
- 5 words / 5 letters
NoM research : conclusion (miller STM)
Capacity of STM is 7 +/- 2
Chunking helps people remember groups of info by putting them into chunks
NoM research : petterson + petterson ( aim )
Test duration of STM
NoM research : petterson + petterson ( procedure )
- Participants set with a set of trigrams , recall after delays
- prevent rehearsal = interference task of counting back from a 3 digit number
NoM research : petterson + petterson ( findings)
- recall 80 % = after 3 s
- less 10 % = after 18s
NoM research : petterson + petterson ( conclusion )
- STM has a short duration unless info is repeated
- info in STM is quickly lost without rehearsal
NoM research : Bahrik (aim)
Investigate duration of LTM
NoM research : Bahrik (procedure)
- 392 students
- test recall on high school year books
- photo recognition and free recall
NoM research : Bahrik (findings)
Participants last 15 years = 90% photo and 60% free recall
After 48 years = 70% photo and 30 % free recall
NoM research : Bahrik (conclusion)
- LTM can last a long time
NoM research evaluation : outdated (-)
- Jacobs study is outdated
- psychological study lacked control = confounding variables
NoM research evaluation : lacks generalisability (-)
- Peterson and Peterson
- only used 24 students so cannot be applied to wider population e.g adults
- cannot assume theirs is the same
NoM research evaluation : high external validity (+/-)
- bahrick used year books so stimuli is natural
- cannot control confounding variables (how many times people look at year book)
NoM research evaluation : artificial stimuli (-)
- baddley and Peterson and Peterson use artificial stimuli
- not meaningful memories
- reduces applicability
MSM : stimulus from environment leads to
Sensory register
MSM : what is the sensory register split into
- iconic
- echoic
- other stores
MSM : how to transfer stm to ltm
Prolonged rehearsal elaborate
MSM : who developed MSM of memory
Atkinson and shiffrin
MSM : what is the sensory register
Information from our senses is stored
MSM : what is iconic memory for
Visually coded information
MSM : what is echoic memory for
Auditory information
MSM : sensory register coding
Iconic
Echoic
MSM : sensory register capacity
High capacity
MSM : sensory register duration
Brief (less than 1/2 second)
MSM : HM case study
- Hippocampus removed
- retrieval from LTM to STM lost
- couldn’t form new memories
MSM : how does HM’s study support the MSM
- shows there are different stores
- several steps to memory formation
- damage to one store (ltm) can leave other store undamaged (stm)
Types of LTM : semantic memory
- conscious recall of facts
- explicit
- e.g. capital cities
Types of LTM : episodic memory
- any event reported from a persons life (time stamped)
- explicit
- favourite Christmas
Types of LTM : procedural memory
- knowledge of tasks that dont require conscious recall
- implicit
- e.g riding a bike
Types of LTM : clinical evidence (+)
- HM and Clive wearing
- episodic damaged in both
- semantic relatively unaffected
- procedural memories both intact
Types of LTM : neuro-imaging evidence (+)
- prefrontal cortex associated with episodic and semantic
- tulving used PET scans
- validity
Types of LTM : clinical evidence (-)
- cant determine cause and effect
- lack of control over extraneous variables
- not applicable
WMM : who developed it
Baddley and hitch (focuses on STM)
WMM: why did they create the WWM
Atkinsons and shriffrins MSM was too simple
WMM: 4 Main components
- central executive
- phonological loop
- Visuo spatial sketch pad
- episodic buffer
WMM: central executive
- component that coordinates the activities of subsystems
- allocates processing resources to those activities
- limited capacity
WMM: phonological loop
- component that processes info in terms of sound (written and spoken material)
- divided into phonological store and articulatory process
WMM: articulatory process
- inner voice which allows maintenance rehearsal
- repeat sounds to keep them in the phonological loop
WMM: phonological store
- inner ear which holds auditory speech
- keeps / stores words u hear
WMM: visuo-spatial sketchpad
- component that processes visual and spatial information in a mental space called the ‘inner eye’
Subdivisions = visual cache , inner scribe
WMM: visual cache
- stores visual info about form and colour
WMM:inner scribe
Spatial relationship and arrangement of objects
WMM:episodic buffer
- component that brings together material into a singe memory
- bridge between working memory and LTM
WMM: central executive capacity and coding
- capacity = limited capacity
- coding = modality free
WMM: phonological loop coding and capacity
- capacity = 2 s
- coding = acoustic
WMM:visuo-spatial sketchpad capacity and coding
- capacity = 3-4 objects
- coding = visual and spatial
WMM:episodic buffer coding and capacity
- capacity= limited about 4 chunks
- coding = modality free
WMM: reliability of case studies (-)
- evidence comes from people with brain damage
- e.g KF and Hm
- only unique patients
- those with and without act different so must be cautious when generalising
MSM evaluation : lacks mundane realism (-)
- artificial stimuli
- trigrams which don’t resemblance real life
MSM evaluation : over simplified (-)
- MSM doesn’t consider multiple STM and LTM , just 3 compartments
WMM: Case studies (+)
- KF found it difficult to recall sound but not letters/digits
- visual info was fine but verbal difficult
- phonological loop damaged
- I: separate STM stores for visual and acoustic information
WMM: central executive (-)
- lack of clarity over CE
- baddeley argued the CE was the most important but least understood
- WMM is not fully explained so model is incomplete
WMM: brain scans (+)
- support from brain scans
- braver et al gave tasks that involved the CE , greater activity in left prefrontal cortex
- task difficulty increased = activity increased
- demands for CE increase so harder to fulfil function
- biological / physical basis to CE
Explanations of Forgetting : interference theory
forgetting because one memory blocks another , so one or both memories distorted
Explanations of Forgetting : interference
forgetting in the LTM
Explanations of Forgetting : Proactive interference
old information prevents recall of newer information
Explanations of Forgetting : Retroactive interference
newer information gets in the way of recalling older information
Explanations of Forgetting : effects of similarity (aim)
McGeoch and McDonald investigated retroactive interference
Explanations of Forgetting : effects of similarity (procedure)
- lis 10 words upto 100% accuracy
- 6 conditions where 2nd list was different
- synonyms , antonyms , unrelated , non-sense syllables, digit numbers , no list
Explanations of Forgetting : effects of similarity (findings)
- recall of original list depended on 2nd list
- synonyms had worst recall
Explanations of Forgetting : effects of similarity (conclusions)
- interference is strongest when memories are similar
interference theory : (research) Baddely and Hitch
aim = if interference was a better explanation that passage of time procedure = rugby players had to remember names of teams they've played findings = recall was better if they had no matches in between conclusion = number of games was more important than how long ago so interference is a better explanation for forgetting
interference theory : (research) Tulving and Psotka
aim = if cues overcome interference procedure = 5 lists in 6 categories + cued recall test findings = 70% for first list but it fell after new list was given + cued recall test = recall rose back to 70% conclusion = interference cannot explain the findings of this study
interference theory : (research) retroactive interference (+)
- McGeoch and McDonald studied changing the similarity of 2 sets
- dependant on nature of second list where similar words = worse recall
- interference is strongest when memories are similar
interference theory : (research) artificial stimuli (-)
- heavily relies on lab experiments and using lists
- doesn’t replicate every day life so cannot be generalised
- lacks external validity
counter = some real life experiments like baddley and hitch
interference theory : (research) not valid (-)
- interference can be overcome by cues
- Tulving and Psoktka found cues assisted recall , words were in the LTM but not accessible
- interference theory cannot explain this so its not valid
- counter = other studies which support it
retrieval failure
information is available in LTM but cannot be recalled because of absence of appropriate cues
retrieval failure : retrieval cues
triggers that help you remember
retrieval failure : encoding specificity principle (ESP)
Tulving = if a cue is needed to help recall information it must be present at encoding (when we learn) and at retrieval (recall)
retrieval failure : context dependant forgetting
- external
- based on situation where information is encoded and retrieved
retrieval failure : state dependant forgetting
- internal
- based on physical / psychological state at encoding and retrieval
retrieval failure : (research) Tulving + Pearlstone
aim = investigate retrieval cues procedure = list of words and recall with / without category names findings = without categories = recalled decreased conclusion = retrieval cues are significant for recall
retrieval failure : (research) Godden + Baddely
aim = investigate context dependant forgetting procedure = list of words on land and underwater (4 conditions) findings = accurate recall was 40% less in non matching conditions conclusion = when contexts are different theres retrieval failure
retrieval failure : (research) Carter + Cassaday
aim = investigate internal state forgetting procedure = learn list of words with antihistamine (4 conditions) findings = difference in internal state = memory worse conclusion = internal cues are absent you are more likely to forget
retrieval failure : research support (+/-)
- research support like carter and cassidy in different conditions
ca = artificial stimuli which was a list of words - lacks mundane realism so validity decreased
retrieval failure : forensic / police work (+)
- retrieval methods used for eye witness testimonies
- used outside of psychology so practical application
- i = police officers can be used to improve our research
retrieval failure : face validity (+)
- theory has face validity
- leave a room you may forget but when you return cues allow you to remember
- this explanation seems valid
Eye witness testimony
Evidence given in court by a witness
Misleading information
Incorrect information given to an eyewitness afte the event
Leading questions
Questions which lead to a cedar in answer because of the way they’re phrased
Post event discussion
Information that happen after the event which can change memory e.g media
Misleading information: lotus and palmer experiment 1
- 45 Americans into 5 groups
- car crash and questionnaires
- verbs ( smashed , collided , bumped , hit , contacted )
- smashed was highest mean speed
- accuracy affected by leading questions
Misleading information: lotus and Palmer experiment 2
- 150 students
- car crash and questionnaire
- asked about speed (smashed / hit) and control
- one week later questioned if they saw broken glass
- memory distorted as smashed suggested there was broken glass
Explaining impact of leading questions
Response bias : how you think you should answer , wording influences answer
- same memory
Substitution : wording changes memory
- memory changes
Gabbert et al : post event discussion
- 60 students and 60 adults watching stealing video
- participants tested individually (control) or in pairs and complete a questionnaire
- 71% in co witness recalled info they didn’t se
- control group no incorrect info
- huge impact
Misleading information evaluation : lotus and palmer
- lacks mundane realism as they were just watching car crash
+ lacks population validity as students may be inexperienced or not drive at all - high control and internal validity
Misleading information evaluation : gabbert et al
- lacks mundane realism as you’re just watching a video
- good population validity as there were 2 groups
- controlled and high internal validity
Misleading information evaluation : +
+ geiselmans cognitive interview to avoid leading questions
Impact = innocent less likely to be convicted
Misleading information evaluation : -
- individual differences
- e.g age
- Rhodes found 55-78 not as accurate as 18-25 and 35-45
Anxiety
State of physical and emotional arousal
Negative imapct of anxiety on recal
Lotus = weapon focus effect
- focus on weapon distracts from perpetrators which reduces accuracy
Anxiety : Johnson and Scott
- participant left alone
- independent groups (no weapon conditions and weapon condition)
- those who saw pen = 49% and knife = 33%
- anxiety with seeing knife
Anxiety : Yuille and cutshall
- field study
- real life shooting and 13 participants interview s
- number of details and rate anxiety
- those who reported stress = 88% accuracy
- fight or flight increased alertness
Contradicting findings of anxiety
- inverted u hypothesis
- after optimal level of anxiety there’s a drastic decline when recall accuracy decreases
Anxiety evaluation : + / -
+ real life application ( yuille and cutshall so no demand characteristics however lack control as there may be extraneous variables + ped )
- unethical to create anxiety in participants (Johnson + Scott)
- inverted u is simplistic ( anxiety has different aspects so reductionist )
Standard police interview
Geisleman found that just asking questions that appeared relevant could be negative as there’s often leading questions , non chronological , jumps between memories
Cognitive interview start
- makes witness feel relaxed and tailors to their language
- non judgemental
4 techniques of cognitive interview
- Report everything to highlight everything
- Reinstate the context to act as cues
- Reverse order to verify accuracy
- Change perspective so enhance recall ( holistic )
Enhanced cognitive interview
- fisher et al
- social interaction to increase rapport
- open ended questions
Cognitive interview : + / -
- time consuming ( training , Irrelavnt info ) + saves time long term
+ ECI is beneficial in terms of info but - variations within police forces means it cannot be compared
+ valuable ( Milne and bull found report everything and reinstate context most important so they can be used even if full CI isn’t used )
MSM evaluation: stm an ltm are independent +
Baddley found semantically similarly uses LTM whereas acoustically similar uses STM so rears has supports the MSM’s view that there are two separate memory stores
