memory Flashcards
what is memory?
the processes that allow us to record, store and later retrieve experiences and information
what is encoding?
getting information not the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes
what is storage?
retaining information over time
what is retrieval?
processes that access stored information
what is the three stage model?
sensory input –> sensory memory –> working/short term memory –> long term memory.
how is information passed through the different stores in the three stage model?
sensory memory –> encoding and attention –> working memory (rehearsal keeps things here) –> encoding –> long term memory (retrieval takes memories from long term to short term memory)
what is sensory memory?
a store that briefly holds incoming sensory information. it comprises of different sensory registers such as the iconic store and echoic store for each different sense.
what is working/short term memory?
a memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information. it is thought to have a duration of up to 20 seconds and a capacity of 5-9 chunks of information
what are memory codes?
mental representations of some type of information or stimulus
what is chunking?
combining individual items into larger units of meaning
what is working memory?
a limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information
what is the structure of working memory?
the central executive directs overall action. there are two slave systems that it controls:
1. the phonological loop which deals with auditory information
2. the visuospatial sketchpad which deals with visual information
the episodic buffer integrates the two slave systems and connects to wider cognitive functions such as perception or long term memory.
what is long term memory?
our vast library of more durable stored memories. it has an unlimited capacity and duration
what is the serial position effect?
the ability to recall an item is influenced by the items position in a list. it is easiest to recall the first and last few items.
what is effortful processing?
encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires conscious attention
what is automatic processing?
encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention
what are the three levels of encoding?
structural = what does it look like phonological = what does it sound like semantic = what does it mean
what is the levels of processing hypothesis?
he more deeply we process information the better we will remember it
what is maintenance rehearsal?
simple, rote repetition
what is elaborative rehearsal?
focusing on the meaning of information or expanding on it in some way
what is the dual coding theory?
encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory because the odds improve that at least one of the codes will be available to support recall
what is the method of loci?
a memory aid that associates information with mental images of physical locations
what is the enactment effect?
memory is better when an action is performed rather than just read out
what is a mnemonic device?
a memory aid
what is a schema?
a mental framework, an organised pattern of thought about some aspect of the world
what is a mnemonist?
a person who displays extraordinary memory skills
what is an associative network?
a massive network of associated ideas and concepts
what is priming?
the activation of one concept (or unit of information) by another
what are neural network models?
each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes
what are parallel distributed processing models?
neural network models
explain how an associative network works?
a model of long term memory where each semantic concept is represented by a node. each node is connected to Many others, with shorter connections implying stronger links. when one node is activated the process of spreading activation occurs and the connected nodes are also activated
what is declarative memory?
factual knowledge
what is episodic memory?
knowledge concerning personal experiences: when, where and what happened in episodes of our lives
what is semantic memory?
general factual knowledge about the world and language, including memory for words and concepts
what is procedural (non-declarative) memory?
memory reflected in skills and actions
what is explicit memory?
conscious or intentional memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognise or recall something
what is implicit memory?
when memory influences our behaviour without conscious awareness
what is a retrieval cue?
a stimulus, whether internal or external, that activates information stored in the long-term memory.
what is an autobiographical memory?
memory for the events of ones life
what makes a cue more successful?
- distinctiveness
- emotion attached
- aroused state
what is a flashbulb memory?
recollections that seem so vivid, so clear, that we can picture them as if they were snapshots of a moment in time. in order to form they require surprise and consequence. they are more resistant to forgetting than normal memories but can also be wildly inaccurate
what is the encoding specificity principle?
memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present during encoding
what is context-dependent memory?
it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded
what is state dependent memory?
our ability to retrieve information is greater when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches our original state during learning
what is mood congruent recall?
we tend to recall information or events that are congruent with our current mood
what is decay theory?
with time and disuse the long-term physical memory trace in the nervous system fades away
what is encoding failure?
forgetting/not knowing information because we fail to encode it deeply enough
what is proactive interference?
occurs when material learned in the past interferes with recall of newer material
what is retroactive interference?
occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall information learned at an earlier time
what is the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state?
we cannot recall something but feel as though we are o the verge of remembering it.
what is repression?
a type of motivated forgetting. it is a motivational process that protects us by blocking the conscious recall of anxiety-arousing memories
what is prospective memory?
remembering to perform an activity in the future
what is amnesia?
an umbrella term for memory loss due to special circumstances
what is retrograde amnesia?
memory loss for events that took place sometime in life before the onset of amnesia
what is anterograde amnesia?
memory loss for events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia
what is dementia?
impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration and interfere with normal functioning
what is Alzheimers disease?
a progressive brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over the age of 65
what is infantile amnesia?
memory loss for early experiences
what is the misinformation effect?
the distortion of memory by misleading post-event information
what is source confusion?
our tendency to recall something or recognise it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it
what is memory consolidation?
hypothetical and gradual binding process
what is long-term potentiation?
enduring increase in synaptic strength
what is a flaw with the computer processing model?
people routinely forget or distort information, which computers don’t do. they also make up memories that never actually happened
describe Sperlings experiment into the iconic memory store
he presented participants with a 3x4 grid of letters for a brief moment. they were then asked to recall as many letters as they could. they were typically able to recall 3-5 letters.
he then repeated the experiment but played a tone indicating what line they should recall. they were typically able to remember 3 of 4 letters.
therefore the capacity is thought to be very large but the duration very short (around a second).
what are some of the different types of memory code?
visual code
phonological code
semantic code
motor code
does the type of memory code have to match the type of stimulus?
no - for example words are often coded semantically even when they are visual or phonological stimuli
letters are coded phonologically.
who came up with the theory of chunking?
Miller
how has the model of short term memory been updated?
it was originally thought to be a temporary holding station on route to the long term memory. this was rejected as being too passive and it is now referred to as the working memory as it actively stores and manipulates information
what was Cowan’s alternative model for working memory?
long term store activated memory (stuff thats been retrieved from the long term store) focus of attention (the chunking capacity)
what are the two components of the serial position effect?
the primacy effect (first things in a list are easiest to remember)
the recency effect (the most recent things in a list are easiest to remember)
what decreases the primacy effect?
if we are prevented from rehearsing
what decreases the recency effect?
a longer gap between learning and recall
can the primacy or recency effect be completely removed?
the recency effect can but the primacy effect cannot be completely removed
what type of rehearsal promotes deeper processing?
elaborative over maintenance
how does creating a memory hierarchy improve recall?
each item acts as a memory cue for the items that fall below it
how do neural network models differ from associative networks?
neural network models assume that there is no one neuron for each unit of information but rather the connections between them occur differently for different stimuli
does conditioning work on people with amnesia?
yes - HM was played a tone and air blown in his eye. he began to automatically blink at the tone even though he could not remember the conditioning process. this is because it is a type of non-procedural memory
what is the difference between recognition and recall?
recognition requires you to decide whether a stimulus is familiar or not
recall involves spontaneous memory retrieval
why do emotionally arousing stimuli become clearer memories?
arousing stimuli trigger the release of stress hormones, this causes neurotransmitters to increase activation in the amygdala which encodes emotional memories into long term memories
is there a link between confidence and accuracy of memories?
there is some evidence to say that the more confident people are in a memory, the less accurate it actually is.. however, this link is weak and relatively disputed.
describe Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve
within 20 minutes almost half of the information is forgotten. it then decreases pretty steadily, it is not completely forgotten
what disproves decay theory?
scientists cannot find a physical memory trace in the brain nor evidence of any physical decay.
there is also evidence from studies into actors who remember scripts better from earlier on in their career which goes against decay theory
what is retrospective memory?
memory for past events
what causes Alzheimers disease?
plaques and tangles in the brain that damage and kill neurons. it also effects acetylcholine action which controls memory and muscle movement
how does Alzheimers disease spread?
across the temporal lobes and to the frontal lobe then eventually throughout the whole brain
what are some possible causes of infantile amnesia?
- brain regions that encode long term memories are not sufficiently developed
- cannot form retrieval cues for early memories
- infants do not have a clear self-concept so have no frame of reference in order to organise memories
what were Loftus and Palmers findings in relation to the misinformation effect?
they investigated leading questions and found that:
‘smashed into’ = 41mph
‘hit’ = 34mph
‘contacted’ = 31mph
what are the three types of false confession?
- voluntary false confession: confessions are usually made to gain attention in high profile cases or for pathological reasons
- compliant false confessions: usually made to end the ordeal of being questioned, or to gain something that is being withheld from them such as food or sleep
- internalised false confessions: when a person truly believes that they are responsible for the crime
what part of the brain is thought to be involved in working memory?
the prefrontal cortex
where is the central executive function thought to be located within the brain?
the frontal lobes (but not exclusively)
where is long term memory processed in the brain?
the hippocampus - it converts short term memories into long term memories but is not their permanent store
how does long term potentiation occur?
when neuronal pathways are repeatedly stimulated the postsynaptic neurons may alter their structure so they become more receptive to the neurotransmitter. this means that in future, presynaptic neurons will not have to release as much neurotransmitter to achieve the same effect
what is over learning?
continued rehearsal past the point of initial learning, and it significantly improves performance on memory tasks
What was the initial model of memory by William James?
Primary memory - currently in your consciousness
Secondary memory - store we don’t always have conscious awareness of
What was Sperlings procedure called?
Materials = visual array Procedure = partial report procedure Time = 50 milliseconds/1 20th of a second
What is the capacity of the phonological loop?
As much information as can be said in 2 seconds - found by baddeley’s experiment into the word length effect
Who proposed the levels of processing approach?
Craik and Lockhart
What did Bower and Clark find?
Narrative improves memory. Made participants remember 120 words - those who made them into a narrative performed better in recall of them
Describe the study that showed multiple cues (and your own personal cues) improve recall
Students learnt 504 words
- 1 of their own as prompt = 61% accuracy
- 3 of their own as prompt = 91% accuracy
- 1 of someone else’s = 11%
- 3 or someone else’s = 55%
Why may Ebbinghauses forgetting curve be inaccurate?
He was using nonsense syllables over meaningful information
Why might interference occur?
Encoding time
Competition among retrieval cues
Too few or too weak retrieval cues
What is the biological cause of Alzheimer’s?
Plaques = clumps of protein fragments that build up on the outside of neutrons
Tangled = fibres that get twisted and wound together within neurons
Who was the first to come up with the idea of schemas?
Bartlett
