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C82 COG > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Why is the concept of recovered memories controversial?

A

Recovered memories is controversial because of the possibility of false memory syndrome. There is also evidence for both true and false recovered memories.

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2
Q

What is false memory syndrome and under what circumstances can this be triggered?

A

The systematic creation of memories for events which never occurred. It can be triggered when therapists are suggestive in questioning and actively look for recovered memories.

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3
Q

Recovered memories can be recovered through psychotherapy or spontaneously. Define recovered memories.

A

Recovered memories are memories for a past event that reappear into consciousness after being inaccessible for a period of time.

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4
Q

What 4 historical types of memory research did (Searleman and Herrmann, 1994) describe?

A
  1. Pragmatic- ways to improve memory
  2. Experimental- documenting memory phenomena with observations
  3. Atheoretical- focusing on phenomena rather than explanations
  4. Theoretical- explaining the mechanisms
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5
Q

Give an example of atheoretical memory in history.

A

Aristotle’s Laws of Associations- which things are remembered together

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6
Q

Give an example of pragmatic memory usage in history.

A

In the Dark ages little was written about memory however rhyme was used as a mnemonic device often.

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7
Q

Who was the main protagonist involved in memory being a contribution to experimental psychology?

A

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)

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8
Q

How did Ebbinghaus study memory?

A

He measured how long it took him to learn a list of “nonsense syllables” so that he could repeat it on two occasions. & He measures how much less time he took to relearn a list- measure of retention

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9
Q

What were Ebbinghaus main contributions to memory in terms of forgetting and learning?

A

The forgetting curve which shows in the first 20 minutes there is the sharpest loss in learned information and the learning curve which shows that as time increases, memory retention decreases exponentially.

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10
Q

Describe what Ebbinghaus called “savings”…

A

He said that once learned, information was stored in our subconscious which later makes relearning quicker.

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11
Q

What did Ebbinghaus find about massed vs distributed practice?

A

Massed practice achieves goal soonest but long term retention is poorer. Distributed practice encodes more per hour and is more efficient.

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12
Q

Bower et al (1969) found that words were learned 4x faster if…

A

they were given appropriate network of meanings.

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13
Q

Bransford and Johnson (1972) found that context…

A

acted as an encoding effect, especially picture context over title context.

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14
Q

Brewer & Treyens (1981) found that..

A

schematic memory for places affects recall. e.g more likely to recall object such as a chair, desk and wall because we associate them with offices.

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15
Q

Brewer and Treyens (1981) also found that what affects recall more than schema expectancy?

A

Saliency-how noticeable the object is.

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16
Q

Smith & Graesser (1981) found that schema pointers guides…. and atypical tags helps….?

A

schema pointers guides recall and atypical tags helps recognition .

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17
Q

Name 3 ways encoding can be enhanced.

A
  1. Mind maps-relating new knowledge to existing ( Buzan,2010)
  2. Testing knowledge rather than just elaborating it ( Karpicke & Blunt, 2011)
  3. Spreading of test intervals ( Rohrer & Pashler, 2007)
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18
Q

Loftus & Loftus (1980) found that the common belief about memory storage was..

A

Memory is unlimited and once stored cannot be lost. Evidence of this is the retrieval of unconscious memories by psychoanalysis, hypnosis and brain stimulation.

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19
Q

How is psychoanalysis evidence of the permanence of memory?

A

patients may recover memories for traumatic events which seemed to have been lost.

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20
Q

How is hypnosis evidence of the permanence of memory?

A

Under hypnosis people may be age regressed to recall lost details.

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21
Q

How is brain stimulation evidence of the permanence of memory?

A

Penfield directly stimulated the temporal lobes in epileptics and reported patients reporting memory-like events. Loftus- the events reported may be closer to dreams than to memories- less than 3% of those could be identified as past experiences.

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22
Q

What does the Brown/Peterson paradigm demonstrate?

A

Rapid decay of information in short term memory.

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23
Q

What does the Brown/Peterson paradigm demonstrate?

A

Rapid decay of information in short term memory by asking ppts to encode a consonant trigram, count down in 3s from a number and recall consonant trigram.

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24
Q

Who demonstrated that Brown/Peterson forgetting is at least partly caused by Proactive Interference rather than decay.

A

Keppel & Underwood (1962)

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25
Q

What is Proactive Interference?

A

Old learning causes forgetting of new material

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26
Q

What is the opposite of Proactive Interference?

A

Retroactive Interference- New learning causes forgetting of old material

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27
Q

The Brown/Peterson Paradigm was due to…

A

performance depending on delay. Their results was an average of many repeated trials.

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28
Q

A change in category brings performance close to the levels of trial 1 again. What did Wickens 1970 call this phenomenon?

A

The release of proactive interference

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29
Q

Interference can be caused by misinformation and wording, which researchers showed this?

A

Loftus & Palmer (1974)- when the word smashed is used rather than hit when asking about a car accident, higher speed estimates are given and more likely to say they saw broken glass.

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30
Q

“The Misinformation effect” could indicate that the original information has been destroyed….this is called?

A

Trace Destruction

31
Q

Loftus, Miller & Burns (1978) in their slides depicting a car accident, differed how?

A

Some had a “stop” and some had a “ yield” sign

32
Q

Loftus et al. (1978) found that…

A

when the question was consistent performance was 75% and when the question was misleading performance was 51%.

33
Q

How do you explain some people being misled by the Misinformation effect and some not?

A

Perhaps the information was never initially encoded in those who are misled and so they’re more susceptible to response bias.

34
Q

McCloskey & Zargoza (1985) found that…

A

the misinformation effect is real however there is no trace destruction of the original memory of the hammer like Loftus originally suggested

35
Q

What did Wilkinson & Cargill (1955) find when studying repression?

A

Men had worse memory of the oedipal content than women.

36
Q

Describe Levinger & Clark (1961) study

A

Free association task with neutral and emotional stimulus words, galvanic skin responses measured, free associates to neutral words recalled better.

37
Q

Describe Parkin, Lewinsohn & Folkard (1982) replicate study of Levinger’s previous study…

A

A delay of 7 days was added. Found that memory for associates to emotional words is better than neutral ones.

38
Q

What is the Action-Decrement theory by (Walker, 1958) ?

A

Memory traces take time to consolidate- physiological arousal increases the time for the trace to consolidate but may improve longer-term encoding.

39
Q

Vocab learning is enhanced by negative arousing pictures immediately after successful retrieval. But arousal doesn’t enhance performance while restudying items. Who had this finding?

A

Finn and Roediger (2011)

40
Q

What did Nelson’s 1978 study into the permanence of memory show?

A

It showed that although a quarter of the items couldn’t be recognised after a 4 week delay, when these items were relearned there is a substantial advantage for learning the old associates rather than new ones. 50-20.

41
Q

Nelson found that forgotten memories can still influence our behaviour and forgetting may be…

A

a progressive reduction in availability through interference rather than deletion.

42
Q

Anderson, Wais and Gabrieli (2006) found that…

A

arousal affects memory for neutral pictures presented earlier.

43
Q

What is Hypermnesia and when can it be observed?

A

It is when memory seems to improve over time. It can be observed when forgetting is low and reminiscence is high.

44
Q

Erdelyi & Becker (1974) found that…

A

net gains in memory can be observed over time however in most cases it requires consistent increases in retrieval effort.

45
Q

Recent studies have replicated Hypermnesia effects for emotional items and suggest that…

A

Hypermnesia may be even stronger in negatively arousing conditions (Kern, Libkumen & Otani, 2002)

46
Q

Anderson, Bjork & Bjork found that when investigating retrieval induced forgetting…

A

that retrieval induced forgetting only occurred on unpracticed exemplars on practiced categories.

47
Q

How does directed forgetting work?

A

It works by inhibiting one set of items so that you can enhance your ability to encode new items

48
Q

There are two types of directed forgetting, item-method directed forgetting and list-method directed forgetting. What are the differences?

A

Item-method-encoding effect rather than inhibition in storage.
List-method-associated with retrieval inhibition of items in memory.

49
Q

Which of the following methodologies is not thought to invoke suppression of a stored memory trace?

  1. part-list cueing
  2. the think/not think procedure
  3. item-method directed forgetting
  4. list-method directed forgetting
A

Item-method directed forgetting.

50
Q

Anderson & Bower, 1972 found that mnemonic strategies such as the Pegword method and method of loci help encoding as it enables ppts to use a specific retrieval strategy. However…

A

although recognition helps recall it doesn’t prove that recognition is part of recall. Some items can be recalled but not recognised.

51
Q

Tulving and Thomson (1973(- Recognition…

A

Failure. They found that many words were recalled that were not recognised.

52
Q

What are some conclusions from Tulving & Thomson (1973) ?

A

Recall can produce better memory than recognition if retrieval cues are better.
The generate-recognise approach may often be used in free recall but it isnt a complete model of all recall e.g cued recall.

53
Q

Describe the Encoding Specificity Principle by Tulving,1983?

A

Memory performance is best when the cues present at test, match those that were encoded at the time of study.

54
Q

Godden & Baddeley(1980) context dependent memory study found that….

A

a change of context impairs memory because cues from the environment have been integrated into the coding.

55
Q

Goodwin et al., (1969) state dependent memory study found that…

A

alcohol impairs memory but there is a strong state dependency effect.

56
Q

Teasdale & Russell (1983) investigated mood congruent memory and found that…

A

we tend to recall information congruent with our mood state at test.

57
Q

Geiselman et al (1986) study of the cognitive interview technique found that…

A

The cognitive interview elicited more correct items than the standard however no difference in number of errors.

58
Q

Maylor (1990) did a study into Prospective memory by telling elderly ppts to phone the lab at a specific time for a week and found that…

A

The best performance was seen when external cues were used and not internal ones such as just remembering. Also none of the traditional memory tests predicted performance on the Prospective task.

59
Q

Reality Monitoring- Johnson & Raye (1981)-

A

The source of a memory may be reconstructed from its content as this information may not have been stored.

60
Q

What can be seen with autobiographical memory?

A

Rubin’s forgetting function

61
Q

Wagenaar found that when ppts recorded details of one event per day…

A

the forgetting function was seen at the time of recall however items were still always recognised.

62
Q

Barclay & Wellman (1986)- although people are good at recognising their own diary entries as their own, over time…

A

the become more likely to falsely accept altered foil events as their own.

63
Q

What did Freud refer to as Infantile Amnesia?

A

Studies using the cue word technique reveal few memories from the first years of life. e.g 0-3 years

64
Q

What are Autobiographical memories? Conway & Pleydell-Pearce (2000)

A

They are transitory mental constructions within a Self-Memory System (SMS).

65
Q

According to Burt, Kemp & Conway (2003) what is an event in autobiographical memory?

A

The associative structure surrounding one person’s memory for an individual event.

66
Q

What are Schacter’s 7 sins of memory?

A 
Transience-(forgetting/interference)
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
67
Q

Which part of memory does absent-mindedness affect?

A

Storage-excessive transience
Encoding-inattention
Prospective retrieval

68
Q

Which part of memory does blocking affect?

A

Blocking affects retrieval:

  1. Retrograde amnesia(Kapur)
  2. Part-list cueing(Sloman et al)
  3. Retrieval-induced forgetting(Anderson & Spellman)
  4. Directed forgetting&retrieval inhibition(Bjork & Bjork)
69
Q

Schacter proposes 5 types of bias in memory. What are they?

A
  1. consistency
  2. change
  3. hindsight
  4. egocentric
  5. stereotypical
70
Q

What is transience?

A

forgetting/interference.

71
Q

What is an example of the sin of misattribution?

A

Deja Vu-misattribute fluency for familiarity.(Whittlesea, 1993).

Also seen in Jacoby-False Fame Paradigm.

72
Q

How does Usher & Neisser get round the problem of not knowing whether early childhood memories are correct?

A

The used parents to verify specific events.
22% of parents’ memories conflicted with the child.
Negative vents remembered best!

73
Q

Rubin et al, 1986- memories of 70 year olds show both…

A

childhood amnesia and a reminiscence peak

74
Q

When dating memories, it is good to use what instead of relying on working self?

A

It is good to use self-reference ( Skowronski 1991) because working memory introduces inference and bias errors( Schacter, 2001).

C82 COG (4 decks)

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