Memory Flashcards
What is the research for coding in the multi store model
Baddley- independent groups design, three conditions. One learned acoustically similar words one learned semantically similar and one learned list of words (control). Then asked partcicpamt to recall immediately (STM) or after 20 mins (LTM)
What did baddley find for coding research
Short term memory more acoustic words forgotten suggesting stm codes acoustically
Long term memory more semantic words forgotten as ltm codes semantically
What was the research on capacity
Jacobs increasing digit span found, recall out loud in the correct order. Increases list until can’t recall correctly anymore. results to be from 7.3 to 9.3
Lacks internal validity as done a long time ago and confounding variables may not have been controlled
Duration research
Bahrick et al the yearbook study. 392 participants. either free recall or photo recognition
within 15 years of leaving 90% recall in photo recognition and 60% free recall. 48 years photo was 70% and free recall 30%
Evaluation of msm of memory
Supporting research- baddley study proves they’re two separate stores.
More than one type of stm but MSM suggests it’s a unitary store. shallice and Warrington found KF amnesia patient could remember digits when read himself but not when read out loud to him so could be another stm store for non verbal
Ltm coding involves more than just maintenance rehearsal and repeating. Craik and Lockhart found there to be a correlation between how deep something is processed and how well you remember it. Three conditions with different levels of processing, deepest processing condition remembers more of the 60 words out of a list of 180
Research to support different types of long term memory
Corkin amnesia patient couldn’t remember anything short term but trained to carry out a task involving tracking a curvy line.
At first performance was poor. After a week he had no conscious memory of doing it but performance was a lot better. Retained procedural memory but no episodic memory.
Evaluation for different types of ltm
Neuroimaging- different types of memory stored in different parts of brain. Tulving et al scanned brains with PET scanner while doing tasks found semantic was left prefrontal cortex and episodic was right prefrontal cortex
Real life applications - being able to identify different parts means targeting treatments for cognitive impairment e.g older people tend to lose episodic memory
Lack of reliability - tulving Has revised original distinction between episodic memory and semantic and now doubts it
What is the phonological loop divided into
The articulatory process- repeating sounds or words to keep them in working memory while they’re needed capacity is two seconds of what you can hear
Phonological store- stores the words you hear
Capacity and what the visuospatial sketchpad is divided into
Capacity= Three or four objects
Visual cache stores visual data
Inner scribe records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
Research for a limited central executive
Hunt
Repeated measure design participants performed psychomotor task and another intelligence test on spatial patterns
Performance decreased when doing harder problems. Interpreted the deterioration as evidence that both tasks were making use of the same component (VSS) but the competing for same limited capacity in the CE
Evaluation of wmm
Clinical evidence of brain damaged patients - shallice ans Warrington case of KF evidence for more than one store, forgetting of visual less than audio so PL loop damaged
Trojano and grossi SC pl was damage different sections unable to learn word pairs
Lack of clarity in the central executive- cognitive psychologists believe its underdeveloped needs to be more clear than attention, could possibly have more sections
Dual task performances- baddleys studies of dual task performances struggled when using the same components same thing as hunts study
Research on interference theory
Baddley and hitch
Rugby players recall team names they played. Numbers played varied.
If decay theory is correct should forget the similar percentage of games.
The ones who played the most game forgot more due to interference
Research for context dependent forgetting
Godden and baddley on the land and in the sea study
Independent groups. Learned under sea and recalled on sea or land etc.
30% deficit when different
What are the three components of retrieval failure theory
Encoding specificity principle
Context dependent forgetting
State delendket forgetting
What two components are there of misleading information
Leading questions
Post event discussion
What are the four main techniques used in the cognitive interview
Report everything - every detail, may trigger other memories, even if seems irrelevant or aren’t confident
Context reinstatement - return to crime scene in mind.
Reverse the order - different chronological order. Prevent reporting expectation rather than truth and stops lies
Change perspective- recall from other perspectives, how looked from perps view, disrupts affect of schema on recall
Evaluation of duration research bahrick rt al
High external validity and mundane realism as real life meaningful memories were studied
Couldn’t control if the people look at yearbookbefore then and rehearsed memories
What is the process of the multi store model
Stimulus Sensory register Pay attention Stm Retrieval or maintenance rehearsal Enough maintenance rehearsal goes to ltm Can be retrieved from ltm to stm
Coding capacity and duration in the sensory register stm and ltm
Sensory register = code in form it is received, capacity all sensory experience, duration less than half a second
Stm= coding mainly acoustically, capacity 7+or-2, duration up to 30 seconds
Ltm= coding mainly semantic, capacity potentially unlimited, duration 30 seconds to a lifetime
What are the two main stores in the sensory register
Iconic memory = visual information
Echoic memory= acoustic info
Short term memory facts
Used for immediate tasks
Increase capacity through chunking
Fragile state info will decay quickly if it isn’t rehearsed limited duration
If new info comes into stm it displaces the old due to limited capacity
Describe episodic memory
Long term memory for events or episodes in our lives. Likened to a diary. Time stamped so remeber when they happened e.g last week
describe semantic memory
Ilong term information about the world or world knowledge. Meaning of words the grass is green etc.
Can be used without revferencd to when we learnt it
Describe procedural memory
Long term memory for actions and skills
Recall without conscious awareness. Non declarative so difficult to put into words
What’s the working memory model
Central executive Episodic buffer phonological loop Visuospatial sketch pad ONLY STM developed by baddeley and hitch
Describe the central executive
Attentional process that manages incoming data make decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks
Very limited storage capacity
Describe the phonological loop
Deals with auditory info and preserves the order in which it was received
Articulatory process- repeating words in a loop to keep them in working memory capacity is two seconds worth of what you can say. Inner voice
Phonological store- stores words you hear, inner ear
Describe the episodic buffer
Temporary store for information integrating the visual spatial and verbal information processed by other stores. And maintain sense of time sequencing
Explain interference
Two pieces of info conflict with each other. Resulting in forgetting oh one or both or in some distortion of memory. Forgetting in LTM. Forgetting in LTM is because interference makes it hard to locate memories
Explain proactive interference
Older memories interferes with new ones
Explain retroactive interference
New interferes with old info
Interference worst when info is similar
Evaluation of interference theory
Only explains some situations of forgetting- interference only occurs when info is quite similar so doesn’t occur that often so is relatively unimportant in everyday situations.
Evidence from lab studies lots of it e.g Mcgeoch and McDonalds study where they gave one list then the next one was either similar 12% recall nonesense words (26% recall) numbers 37% recall
3 parts of retrieval failure theory
Encoding specificity principle- cue has to be present at encoding and retrieval. If cues are present at encoding but absent at retrieval will be some forgetting.
Context dependent forgetting - participants recall superior when retrieving in same place they learnt it
State dependent forgetting - performance in memory is better when in the same state
Research for state dependent forgetting
Goodwin et al
Male volunteers remember words either drunk or sober then recall list 24hours later either sober again or drunk. Recall better when in same state whether drunk or sober
Evaluation of retrieval failure
Real world application - improve recall when need to. Smith showed thinking of room where you’ll be taking exam (mental reinstatement) improves recall.
Questioning context effects- exaggerated for example can’t get extreme situations like underwater and on land so different rooms are unlikely to make a difference
What’s the research for leading questions experiment 1
Loftus and palmer
45 students
7 films different traffic accidents
Questionnaire including critical question how fast were cars going when they hit each other. 5 groups with different words either hit smashed collided bumped contacted
Results- mean speed smashed= 40.8
Contacted = 31.8
Leading questions exp 2 loftus and Palmer
New 150 participants three groups asked how fast they were going using smashed hit or a control word. Answered speed question. Came back a week later and asked if broken glass when there wasn’t any. Smashed = 16 hit = 7 said there was glass.
How does the conformity effect relate to misleading information
Post event discussion- co witnesses may reach a consensus of what happened witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or believe the others are right. Leads to a phenomenon called memory conformity
Research for post event discussion
Wright et al
Watched film of woman stealing wallet. Two groups one with accomplice one without. Straight after accurate recall if she was alone. Paired up with other group 79% came to an agreement even tho they saw different videos
How does repeat interviewing relate to post event discussion
each time eyewitness interviewed comments from interviewer become incorporated into recollection of events.
Evaluation of misleading information
Ewt in real life- lab experiments unlike real life as no arousal or stress so may not replicate the real situations
Real life applications- criminal justice system relies on ewt for prosecutions. When cases looked at again with the DNA people have been exonerated because were wrongly convicted based off ewt
Effects of anxiety on recall
Negative
Negative - physiological arousal makes us miss cues
Tunnel theory of memory argues witness attention narrows to weapon and miss other things weapon focus
Effects of anxiety on recall positive
Physiological arousal causes flight or fight increases alertness and improves memory, more aware of cues.
Describe inverted u
Deffenbacher applies inverted U to anxiety, improves accuracy until an optimal point and then anymore anxiety reduces performance
Evaluation of effects of anxiety
Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety- could be due to surprise rather than anxiety as backed up by pickel research- thief with scissors, handgun and wallet and raw chicken. High surprise meant bad recall
Inverted U is too simplistic- anxiety difficult to define and measure accurately. Doesn’t take into accounts the cognitive behavioural emotional and physical. Inverted u only takes into account physiological affects.
What’s the standard interview
Interviewer talks most
Asks questions that force answers
Predetermined questions
Unconsciously ask leading questions
What’s the research for CI
Geiselman et al Participants viewed violent film. 48 hours later interviewed using either CI, standard or hypnosis. Mean number of correctly recalled facts CI= 41.2 Standard= 29.4 Hypnosis= 38
Evaluation of CI
Enhanced cognitive interview used includes additional elements. When to make eye contact etc. ECI in studies produced consistent more correct info
Tries to enhance both quality and quantity but the effectiveness has mostly been on the quantity.
Some aspects are more useful than others. Each technique improves recall but researchers found combination of report everything and context reinstatement was the best recall.
CI is time consuming less practical and requires special training.
Impact on economy
Research for anxiety negative recall
Johnson and Scott- argument pen and grease. Blood and knife. Pick out man from 50 photos 49% from low anxiety. 33% from high anxiety
Anxiety positive effect on recall
Yuille and cutshall
Study of real life shooting in Canada. Shop owner shot thief dead. 21 witness 13 took part. Interviewed 4-5 months after compared details to original. Rate how stressed they were using a 7 point scale.
Participants who reported highest anxiety most accurate 88% compared to 75%
What are the components of cognitive interview
Report everything
Context reinstatement
Reverse the order
Change perspective
