Memory

Question 1

What are the encoding, storage and retrieval stages of memory?

Answer 1

• Sensory storage: split-second memory system that stores information coming in through your senses.
• Encoding: Sensory information is transformed into a form that our neural system can recognize and process. Information can be processed visually, acoustically or semantically.
• Storage: memories can be stored in short-term or long-term form.
• Retrieval: STM is stored and retrieved sequentially whereas LTM is stored and retrieved by association.

Question 2

What are the different levels of description in cognitive psychology’s approach to studying memory?

Answer 2

• Approaches research in terms of levels of description of a complex system
  
  • Computational level: abstract problem analysis (what needs to be computed)
  • Representation/algorithm level: specifies a formal procedure to perform the task - specify form of information and steps required
    
    • Cognitive Psychology
  • Hardware level: the physical implementation
    
    • Cognitive Neuroscience
• Relationships between levels
  
  • A certain amount of independence (cannot infer across levels)
  • integration across levels is possible –> corelation of cognitive tasks and fmri data

Question 3

What is the information processing model of memory?

Answer 3

• 1950-80s Computer metaphor
  
  • The mind as a single processor
  • “coding” metaphor: use of symbols to represent things in the world
  • Representation: Specify form of symbolic knowledge
  • Algorithms: Specify operations/processes required to manipulate and transform input and retrieve relevant symbolic knowledge
• Tested by developing a model of a task that generates predictions about observable behaviours

Question 4

What is the difference between theories/models and frameworks/paradigms?

Answer 4

• Theories/Models: capture fundamental characteristics of empirical phenomena
• Frameworks/paradigms: much more generalised set of assumptions about the fundamental characteristics and organisation of mental processes
• Benefits: Generate hypothesis to be tested
• Restaints: can constrict the answers we consider

Question 5

What is the connectionist framework?

Answer 5

• 1980s-now
• Neural metaphor: the mind is a network of interconnected processing units (neurons)
  
  • Processing consists of transmission of activation and inhibition within these networks
• Theory takes the form of a computer programme which sets up
  
  • large numbers of interconnected computing units (nodes)
  • Input units, Output units & hidden units
    
    • Units can send excitatory or inhibitory signals to other units,

Question 6

What is the cognitive neuroscience paradigm?

Answer 6

• 1990s-now
• Neuroimaging: Many cognitive functions can be localised to particular neural regions
• Involves identifying and investigating how these areas respond to experimental manipulations provides insight into the brain mechanisms underpinning cognitive processes

Question 7

What are four different approaches to measuring memory processes?

Answer 7

• Experimental cognitive psychology
  
  • Develop theories of cognitive processes underlying a task
  • Use behavioural evidence to test theories
  • BUT theories often abstract, and tests rely on inferences
• Cognitive neuropsychology
  
  • Use patterns of impairment after brain injury to infer the functional organisation of the brain
  • Dissociations between different tasks implies that they rely on different neural systems (especially if double dissociations)
  • BUT have to rely on “single cases”
• Computational modeling
  
  • create a computer program based on model of task performance
  • BUT requires lots of specification –> often have to specify details that are not part of theory
• Cognitive neuroscience
  
  • take “snapshots” of brain activity while people are performing cognitive tasks (e.g., PET, fMRI)
  • BUT different measures reflect different aspects of brain function; and techniques require effective application of cognitive psychological methods

Question 8

How do the different measures of memory function relate to behaviour, models and the brain?

Answer 8

Question 9

What is the multistore model of memory?

Answer 9

Traditional view of memory - STM and LTM are independent with different properties

Question 10

How does the influence of semantic information on STM argue against the multistore model of memory?

Answer 10

• The multistore model predicts total independence between LTM and STM, but semantic (LTM) influences on STM are apparent
• Semantic Influences
  
  • Von Restoff effect: U curve in recall (primary effect, recency effect)
  • Brown-Peterson: proactive interference (over many trials, interference from previous similar sets of the same semantic type) removed when semantic group is changed eg fruit to colours)

Question 11

What did Craig and Lockhart determine about levels of processing in memory?

Answer 11

• The experiment
  
  • investigated incidental memory (not told to try and remember something) for material presented with different orienting tasks
    
    • print: counting letters in words
    • sound: does this word rhyme with treat?
    • Meaning: do you find these in the city?
• Memory works best when encoding task requires deep rather than shallow processing - meaning is remembered > sound > print
• Not due simply to longer encoding time for deeper encoding tasks

Question 12

What is Andersons interactive Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) Model of memory?

Answer 12

Question 13

In Andersons ACT model of memory what constitutes declarative, production and working memory?

Answer 13

• LONG-TERM MEMORY
  
  • DECLARATIVE MEMORY
    
    • Semantic memory
    • Episodic memory
  • PRODUCTION MEMORY (i.e procedural memory)
    
    • memory for how to do things
    • not verbalisable or available to conscious awareness
• WORKING MEMORY
  
  • A system in which incoming information is processed and integrated with existing declarative and procedural memory

Question 14

What is Baddeleys model of working memory?

Answer 14

• Working memory is comprised of three specialist components
• The Central Executive
  
  • Limited capacity, modality free control system responsible for co-ordination, selection, allocation of attentional resources etc
• The 2 Slave Systems
  
  • Phonological loop: maintains verbal information
  • Visuospatial sketchpad: maintains visual/spatial information
• Addition: Episodic Buffer: interface of WM with LTM
  
  • multimodal but limited capacity
  • ‘flashbulb’ memories
• Evaluation: heuristically useful, difficulty in researching the ‘central executive’ properly
  
  • *

Question 15

What did Miyaki et al contribute to the excutive functions approach to working memory?

Answer 15

• Executive processes:
  
  • control and regulate thought and action
  • Are associated with frontal lobes e.g. deficits in people with brain injury
• Miyake et al. (2000) identified three independent executive processes:
  
  • updating; 2-back task
  • shifting; task changing (identify colour or letter)
  • inhibition: Antisacade Task (Avoid irrelevant stimuli)
• These processes show different relationships with cognitive development and intelligence

Question 16

How can we measure the work done by WM?

Answer 16

• A valid measure of the role of working memorycapacity in ‘real world tasks’ need to assess SIMULTANEOUS demands of BOTH storage and processing
• Simple vs. complex span tasks:
  
  • complex spans require both processing and storage that are implemented in different domains e.g. verbal, numerical and spatial.
  • Statistically there is a higher correlation between complex tasks than simple span.
• Individual differences in working memory:
  
  • individuals with higher WM are less vulnerable to seductive details andmind wandering
  • This makes their task performance more efficient.

Question 17

What is Propsective memory and what processes are involved?

Answer 17

• Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time
  
  • As opposed to retrospective memory - just remembering the past
• Stages
  
  • Intent formation
  • Monitoring for time or event cue; this is the delay period, time cues (33%) are less accurate than event cues (52%), requires WM
  • Cue detection and intention retrieval: retrieval from LTM
  • Intention recall
  • Intention execution​

Question 18

What is the Preparatory Attentional and Memory (PAM) theory of prospective memory?

Answer 18

• Preparatory Attentional and Memory Processes (PAM): 2 stages
  
  1. Monitoring until action performed: Requires WM/attention capacity, tasks during period performed more slowly
  2. Retrospective memory required to remember the action to be performed

Question 19

How can prospective memory be improved?

Answer 19

• Overcoming interruptions: form explicit intention to resume task after interruption
• Place distinctive reminder cues where they will be seen at the correct times
• Make implementation intentions: specify when, how, where responses will be carried out to meet goal
  
  • 54% cues detected in implementation intention condition, and better performance of ongoing task, vs 31% cues detected in control condition

Question 20

What is the Multi-process theory of prospective memory?

Answer 20

• Multi-Process theory: effect of concurrent task type
  
  • Focal tasks: automatic detection of cues allowed by current task.
  • Non-focal tasks: monitoring for cues required when current task interfers
• Evidence:
  
  • Brain imaging: spike (focal task) vs continuous activation (nonfocal)
  • lesion studies: damage in specific requirements: retrospective vs monitoring component

Question 21

What is the Dynamic-Multi-process theory of prospective memory?

Answer 21

• Dynamic Multi-process theory: builds on multiprocess
  
  • Monitoring using attentional control.
    
    • Since effort is required, only monitor when cue is expected
    • Experimental evidence: task performance not slowed when told not to expect a cue
  • When cue processed, retrieval is automatic

Question 22

What are the different subtypes of long term memory?

Answer 22

• Implicit Memory: nondeclarative, unconscious
  
  • Classical conditioning,
  • Procedural memory
  • Priming effects
• Explicit Memory: declarative, conscious
  
  • Episodic: ones own experiences
    
    • encompasses many encoded memory types (visual/audio etc)
    • Often has “autonoetic” quality (reliving)
  • Semantic: facts, general knowledge
    
    • not linked to time it was learnt

Question 23

How does double dissociation and neuroimaging support the theory that semantic and episodic memory are localised?

Answer 23

• Dissociation: damage studies
  
  • Single dissociation: Brain damage affects episodic memory but not semantic memory. Could be due to task difficultly
  • Double dissociation: different types of brain damage can affect only one of the two types respectively
• Neuropsychological double dissociations
  
  • WKS: amnesic syndrome, damaged episodic memory, preserved WM, preserved sematic knowledge
    
    • Anterograde (no new info) vs Etrograde (no old info)
  • Semantic dementia: loss of semantic knowledge, no impact on episodic or WM
  • The two sydromes damage different parts of the brain
• Neuroimaging evidence in people without cognitive impairments
  
  • Left prefrontal: activated in semantic retrieval > episodic retrieval
  • Right prefrontal: activated in episodic retrieval > semantic retrieval

Question 24

What is semantic dementia and how does it impact the model of semantic memory?

Answer 24

• A loss of encyclopedic information about the world associated with anterior temporal atrophy
• Deterioration patterns:
  
  • hierachical loss of information: general properties last longer atypical information lost first
  • episodic/autobiographical memory mostly preserved
• Comparison of alzhiemers and semantic dementia
  
  • Alzhiemers damage much more widespread, associated with episodic damage, WM damage, less semantic damage
  • Hub and Spoke Model
    
    • suggests a semantic hub in the anterior temporal lobe

Question 25

What is the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model of LTM ?

Answer 25

* **Connectionist "neural" network:** computer programs inspired by neural metaphor * Nodes: set of interconnected processors (~neurones) that “communicate” by sending activation or inhibition * “Learning rule” for adjusting connections throughout the network * **Assumptions** * ​Knowledge is “distributed” through the system * knowledge learned by gradually adjusting connection weights * No clear distinction between structure and processes * **Benefits:** * explains spontaneous generalisation eg category learning * explains graceful degradation eg semantic dementia\* * **Limitations:** * Cannot model one trial learning, * AB-AC learning - catastrophic interference (replaces old associations) * Exceptions

Question 26

What are the Error correction and categorical learning models in PDP?

Answer 26

* **Error correction**: associations initially random, supervised learning reinforces or reduces connections based on accuracy * assumes knowledge of accuracy * **Category:** new examples will inherit the properties of similar items. * generalisation effect * Interference when learning atypical examples

Question 27

How is it claimed that semantic memory is learned from episodic memory? What evidence supports and contradicts this?

Answer 27

* Claim: semantic memory must be aquired from episodes * Linton: recorded daily events and recalled regularly - unrecalled events were difficult to distinguish from other similar events * Robinson and Swanson: "Event schemas" investigated uni students recall of their holidays * Similarity in encoding * abstracting the common “fact” from multiple episodes of learning so eventually encoded without episodic detail * Personal semantic details - nextdoor neighbour growing up * Contradictory evidence * Early childhood (1, 4) episodic memory damage patients had no adverse semantic memory effects as adults * shows separation

Question 28

How does AB-AC learning display retroactive interference?

Answer 28

Question 29

What is the current view of episodic memory?

Answer 29

* Tulving 2002: **Episodic memory is a subsystem of semantic memory** * Recently-evolved, late-developing and early-deteriorating * Requires “episodic retrieval mode” -\> conscious recollection * semantic memory necessary but not sufficient for episodic memory * Defining and distinguishing features: * quality of recollection * "Autonoetic awareness” awareness of ourself * Linked to self; autobiographical * Dissociations between episodic and semantic memory not due to separate structures, but consolidating factors * Episodic memory requires linking or binding together concepts, contexts and the self (hippocampus)

Question 30

What is the self-memory system?

Answer 30

* The self-memory system involves autobiographical infomation to _create social bonds, direct future behaviour and create a sense of self_ * ABM as a goal-based system to keep track of progress towards goals * **Two main components** * _Working self:_ the currently active goal hierachy + self images, sorts availability of memory based on relevance to goals and self * _Autobiographical memory knowledge base (ABM)_ in LTM * **Demands on Self memory system** * _Coherence:_ control information to meet self-image * _Corespondence:_ memory needs to corespond with experience to promote survival * Adaptive coherence: keep info that balances both above

Question 31

How is knowledge structured in ABM?

Answer 31

* Knowledge structures (from most general to least hierachically) * _Life story_: general factual and evaluative information * _Themes_: major life domains * _Lifetime periods_: major ongoing situations * _General events_: Repeated and “grouped” events * _Episodic memories_: event-specific * *

Question 32

How is semantic memory consolidated into the neo-cortex?

Answer 32

* It is assumed that the hippocampus functions to bind together

Question 33

How are memories retrieved from the self-memory system (ABM)?

Answer 33

* Direct retrieval: Automatic, based on a cue * Generative retrieval: effortful, activates a retrieval model * Retrieval model: Specifies knowledge required to form the memory, looks at cue and goal. Accesses elaborated cues (step through hierachy of ABM) * Time delay: usually takes max 30s to get to specific memory, 2s to get to themes * Neuroimaging * early stage: memory retrival frontal regions, some temporal priming * mid stage: stronger frontal region, whole brain

Question 34

How can the Sense-Cam be used to aid people with memory problems?

Answer 34

* Sense-Cam: microsoft bodycam that takes pictures every 30s * could be replacing the function of the hippocampus * Case study: recall of special events woman with encephilitus * Sense cam pictures taken, and reviewed daily: recall 80%, retention 11month w/review, 3 months w/o reviewing * recording events of day in diary: 48% recall, no retention (\<1m) * Functional brain imaging: known, familiar or not known - sense cam vastly improved ratio. No sig dif between novel and not reviewed.