Attention Flashcards
1
Q
What are some different types of attention?
A
- Focused or ‘selective’ attention
- Visual or auditory
- Eg. Eating while watching television
- Vigilance tasks
- Divided attention
- Processing multiple inputs
- Task performance
- The effects of practice
- E.g. Texting while driving
- Control of attention
- Consciousness and automaticity
- E.g. Looking ‘politely’ away
2
Q
What is the dichotic listening task? What did Cherry and Treisman find in their studies?
A
- A dichotic listening task involves hearing 2 streams of information simultaneously (one in each ear)
-
Cherry (1953) asked: how can we follow only one conversation when everyone is talking at the same time?
- Individuals participated in a dichotic listening task and were asked to repeat the input from the attended ear
- Sometimes one of the inputs was in a different language or a sound other than speech entirely.
- Found that selective listening is possible, but physically similar voices are hard to distinguish.
- In the unattended ear only crude information is encoded e.g. The sex of the speaker/the speech or noise. Very little complex information was encoded from the unattended ear, words were not recognized even when repeated many times, German and English switch was not distinguishable.
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Treisman (1960) found that in a dichotic listening task subjects switched to the unattended channel if the speech makes sense, but quickly switched back.
- Treisman’s attenuation theory proposes that words which are expected are more likely to be processes (priming)
- This is called a “breakthrough” and supports leaky filter vs slippage theory of late locus of selection
3
Q
What is the locus of selection?
A
- The locus selection is the point at which some material is ‘accepted’ or ‘selected’ for further processing; some material is rejected and no longer processed
4
Q
What is Broadbents filter theory of locus of selection?
A
- Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory suggests that multiple inputs are initially encoded in parallel at an early, sensory level.
- One is selected on the bases of its physical characteristics for full processing, and the others are not.
- This accounts for the lack of processing of unattended stimuli.
- Broadbent’s theory proposes an early locus of selection where information if cut off before it can be processed
- Evidence against an early locus of selection:
- People report numbers grouped by ear, not by order. This suggests some information from the unattended ear is processed beyond the physical level
5
Q
What did Moray’s 1959 experiment involve?
A
- Moray (1959) performed an experiment that examined the amount of information being processed by the unattended ear.
- The results showed that instructions presented to an unattended ear were largely unprocessed; however if the instruction was preceded by the listeners name the probability of processing the information was greater.
- Working Memory Factor:
- People with low working-memory capacity are more likely to hear their own names, less able to control their focus of attention and are likely to respond to distractors, impulses and novelties.
- People with high WM can keep track of multiple tasks, are less distractible and more aware of the environment.
6
Q
How did Deutsch and Deutsch, and Johnston and Heinz explain locus of selection?
A
- Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) proposed that all stimuli are processed to a large degree, but are selected based on ‘importance’
- Johnston and Heinz (1978) proposed that selection occurs as early as possible; uncertainty leads to processing of irrelevant stimuli.
- They suggested that task demands necessitate early selection of information, as when stimuli are complex they cannot be processed at once, so selection must take place early.
7
Q
What is Leaky filter vs Slippage theory?
A
-
Treisman; late locus of selection based on findings of the dichotic listening task in which targets can switch attention based on meaningful priming (names)
- It’s a ‘leaky’ filter, which explains why some unattended items receive further analysis. Late locus of selection
- ‘Slippage’ is where the attentional switch suddenly shifts to the unattended channel. (Not locus of selection but issue with attentional control)
- This could support the findings of Broadbent, as he suggests both channels are encoded in parallel, with fast or strobing shifts between the channels allowing for basic information to be processed in its early stages.
8
Q
What is perceptual load theory?
A
-
Lavie (1995) proposed the perceptual load theory of attention which suggests that the switch locus is flexible
- Low Perceptual Load:
- more likely to get distracted (we have spare attentional capacity to be captured by irrelevant things).
- This is like late selection.
- High Perceptual Load:
- Demanding perceptual tasks use all available resources, meaning less distraction.
- This is like early selection.
- So the selection filter can be early or late depending on spare capacity.
- Low Perceptual Load:
- Evaluative pressure: pressure increased distraction caused by task related features and reduced distraction by irrelevant features.
9
Q
What is Feature Integration Theory (FIT)?
A
- Treisman and Gelade: Feature Integration theory argues that features are found faster than conjunctions because attention is needed to put features together
- Two stages of visual search:
- pre-attentive; basic features are processed automatically and in parallel
- attentive; features are combined slowly and in series
- Experimental evidence
- Texture segregation test; when a border is defined by one feature (colour) it is easily found, more difficult when marked by a conjunction
- Flat search slope; attention based detection should take longer with more items, parallel pre-attentive shouldnt be affected
10
Q
What are some of the problems with Feature Integration Theory?
A
- In a feature search, all distractors are the same, but distractors are all different in a conjunction search so it is unclear if it about the target or the distractors.
- Conjunction search could be slowed by decision making rather than attention (a high level cause).
- Triple feature searches are faster, not slower than conjunction
- Wolf: FIT predicts a bimodal distribution of data across both search types, this wasnt found (instead found continuum)
- suggests no true flat search slope
11
Q
What is Wolf’s guided search theory?
A
- Wolfe suggests that feature maps are done quickly, in parallel at a preattentive level.
- If the parallel search doesn’t find the target, the feature maps are combined to guide the serial search
- Opposes information being disregarded as in Treisman’s early locus of selection theory.
- The guided search theory suggest that features are combined to guide a serial search to speed it up, which explains why conjunction searches are not as slow as FIT predicts.
- In a triple conjunction search, FIT predicts a serial search. Whereas GS predicts search for triple conjunction will more efficient for simple conjunctions.
12
Q
What are the features of automatic and pre-attentive processes?
A
Pre-attentive processes: innate, do not need to be learned, the pop-out effect
Automatic processes: learned, fast, parallel, do not draw on central capacity, effortless, unavoidable
13
Q
What was Schiffrin and Schneiders view of automatic processing?
A
- Had subjects memorize 1-4 target letters and search for these in a multi-frame display sequence. The conditions varied between consistent and varied mapping.
- Consistent mapping: over trials, the target is always the target, never a distractor. Varied mapping: the target can be a target in some trials, and a distractor in others.
- A flat search slope for consistant mapping after enough practice –> evidence for learned automaticity
14
Q
What are some errors caused by automatic processing?
A
- Capture errors: it is hard to deviate from routine
- Omissions: interruption of a routine causes a step to be missed
- Perseverations: repeating a routine action eg brushing teeth
- Descriptions: correct action but wrong object
- Data driven: response dictated by outside source
- Associative-activation errors- expectations trigger wrong routine: waiting for a phone call and the door knock but you grab your phone.
- Loss of activation errors: when you walk into the kitchen and forget why
15
Q
What are some problems with ‘automatic processing’?
A
- Stroop effect: automatic errors can be avoided with attention –> not unavoidable
- ‘Unconscious’; may simply not be verbalisable
- Shiffrin and Schneider:
- Consistent mapping: always letters vs numbers.
- Search slopes never completely flat (as in FIT)
- Doesn’t explain how serial to auto processing happens
- Cheng:
- Processes are restructured, not automatized.
- Skill is acquired in how to approach a problem
