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paper 1 psychology > memory > Flashcards

memory Flashcards

1
Q

Research on coding (Baddeley)

A

4 lists- acoustically similar, dissimilar, semantically similar, dissimilar
Immediate - stm- recall worse w/ acoustically similar words- acoustic
After 20 min- ltm- recall worse w/ semantically similar words- semantic

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2
Q

Research on capacity- Digit Span (Jacob’s )

A

Jacobs - 9.3 digits, 7.3 letters
(Researcher reads out four digits- pps recalls-and so on until pps forgets).

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3
Q

Research on capacity - span of memory and chunking (Miller)

A

the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 times (+ or - 2).
people can recall 5 words as well they can recall 5 letters.
They do this by chunking - grouping sets of digits or letters together.

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4
Q

Research on duration of STM

A

Pps were given a consonant syllable-eg YCG
Also a number to count down from- prevent verbal rehearsal
They were told to stop at varying times (2,6,9,12,15,18)
3s- recall 80%
18s-3%

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5
Q

Research on duration of LTM

A

Bahrick, yearbooks pictures and recall of names.
w/in 15 years of graduation= 90% accurate,
48 years= 70%
photo recognition was better

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6
Q

Strength of Baddley- separate memory stores

A

identified a clear difference between two memory stores
STM uses mostly acoustic coding and LTM uses mostly semantic
important step in understanding memory and led to the MSM

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7
Q

Limitation of Baddley- Artificial stimuli

A

word list had no personal meaning to pps
might not tell us much about everyday memory tasks
semantic coding may be used for STM tasks when material is meaningful
limited application

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8
Q

Strengths of Jacob’s study- replication

A

very old but confirmed by more modern studies

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9
Q

Limitation of Jacob’s study- overestimation of STM

A

Cowan found STM capacity to be around 4 chunks

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10
Q

Limitation of STM duration study

A

stimulus material was artificial
doesn’t reflect everyday memory use
lacks external validity

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11
Q

Strength of LTM duration study

A

high external validity due to meaningful memory being tested

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12
Q

Multi store memory model

A

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

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13
Q

Sensory memory

A

Collects sensory information from the environment
Contains a store for each of our 5 senses
Coding: relevant to the sense
Duration: half a second
Capacity: unlimited

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14
Q

Short-term memory

A

Collects info from sensory register if we pay attention to it
Coding: tends to be acoustic
Duration: without rehearsal: 18–30 seconds
Capacity: 5 to 9 items (magic number 7 ±2)

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15
Q

Long-term memory

A

Info transfers from STM through rehearsal
Coding: semantic (meaning)
Duration: potentially forever
Capacity: unlimited

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16
Q

Strength of MSM - research support

A

Baddeley found STM confused by similar sounds, LTM by similar meanings
Shows STM and LTM are separate stores

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17
Q

Limitation of MSM - more than one STM store

A

KF case study: poor recall when digits read aloud but not when read himself
Suggests visual/auditory STMs are separate

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18
Q

Limitation of MSM - rehearsal type matters

A

Craik and Watkins: elaborative rehearsal (meaning) is more effective than maintenance
Prolonged rehearsal not necessary

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19
Q

Three types of LTM stores + proposed by who?

A

Tulving: episodic, semantic, procedural

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20
Q

Episodic

A

Memory of life events
Time stamped, includes context (when, who, emotions)
Conscious recall
Associated with the prefrontal cortex

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21
Q

Procedural

A

Memory of how to do things
Unconscious recall (e.g., riding a bike)
Associated with motor cortex

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22
Q

Semantic

A

Memory of knowledge, facts, concepts
Not time stamped
Conscious recall
Associated with left prefrontal cortex

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23
Q

Declarative memory + types

A

Memories requiring conscious recall: episodic and semantic

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24
Q

Non-declarative memory

A

Does not require conscious recall: procedural

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25
Strength - case study evidence
HM and Clive Wearing had damaged episodic memory Semantic and procedural memory remained intact Shows different types of LTM exist
26
Limitation - conflicting brain area findings
Peterson: semantic = left, episodic = right prefrontal cortex Tulving found opposite Lack of agreement weakens the neuro evidence
27
Strength - real-world application
Belleville created intervention to improve episodic memory in older people Shows value in identifying different LTM types
28
Three types of LTM stores + proposed by who?
Tulving: episodic, semantic, procedural
29
Episodic
Memory of life events Time stamped, includes context (when, who, emotions) Conscious recall Associated with the prefrontal cortex
30
Procedural
Memory of how to do things Unconscious recall (e.g., riding a bike) Associated with motor cortex
31
Semantic
Memory of knowledge, facts, concepts Not time stamped Conscious recall Associated with left prefrontal cortex
32
Declarative memory + types
Memories requiring conscious recall: episodic and semantic
33
Non-declarative memory
Does not require conscious recall: procedural
34
Strength - case study evidence
HM and Clive Wearing had damaged episodic memory Semantic and procedural memory remained intact Shows different types of LTM exist
35
Limitation - conflicting brain area findings
Peterson: semantic = left, episodic = right prefrontal cortex Tulving found opposite Lack of agreement weakens the neuro evidence
36
Strength - real-world application
Belleville created intervention to improve episodic memory in older people Shows value in identifying different LTM types
37
4 parts of WMM + who developed it?
Baddeley and Hitch: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
38
Central executive
Pays attention to information and allocates tasks Capacity: limited Coding: modality-free
39
Phonological loop
Processes auditory information Phonological store: inner ear Articulatory process: inner voice (maintenance rehearsal) Capacity: 2 seconds Coding: acoustic
40
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Processes visual and spatial info Visual cache: form and colour Inner scribe: spatial relationships Capacity: 3–4 objects Coding: visual
41
Episodic buffer
Integrates info from other stores Records events (episodes) Capacity: 4 chunks Coding: modality-free
42
Strength - clinical evidence
KF case study: poor auditory memory, intact visual memory Supports separate components of STM
43
Strength - dual-task performance
Visual + verbal = good performance Two visual tasks = poor performance Supports separate stores
44
Limitation - unclear central executive
May consist of separate components Lacks detail, reduces model validity
45
What is interference?
Forgetting due to disruption between similar pieces of information
46
How does interference occur?
Memories in LTM are available but not accessible due to interference
47
Proactive interference
Older memories interfere with newer ones
48
Retroactive interference
New memories interfere with older ones
49
McGeoch and McDonald - procedure
Learned word list to 100% recall Then learned new list: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated, nonsense, numbers, or no list
50
McGeoch and McDonald - findings
Recall worst when second list was similar (synonyms) Interference stronger when memories are similar
51
Strength - real-world support
Baddeley and Hitch rugby study More games played = worse recall due to interference
52
Strength - drug studies
Diazepam reduces interference Better recall of earlier material
53
Limitation - cues can reduce interference
Tulving & Psotka: category cues restored memory recall Shows interference makes memories temporarily inaccessible
54
What is retrieval failure?
Forgetting because cues are not available to access memory Memory is present but inaccessible
55
Encoding specificity principle
Tulving: memory recall improves if cues at recall match cues at encoding
56
Context-dependent forgetting - Godden and Baddeley
Divers learned and recalled words on land/underwater Recall worse when context changed
57
State-dependent forgetting - Carter and Cassaday
Antihistamines used to change internal state Mismatch between learning and recall state = worse recall
58
Support for retrieval failure - Tulving and Pearlstone
Cued recall = better performance than free recall Categories acted as cues and improved recall
59
Limitation - retrieval failure hard to test
Can't be sure memory is forgotten or just inaccessible
60
What is a leading question?
A question phrased to suggest a certain answer
61
Loftus and Palmer - experiment 1
Watched car crash video Asked "How fast was the car going when it [hit/smashed/contacted]?" Smashed = highest speed estimate (40.5 mph), contacted = lowest (31.8 mph)
62
Loftus and Palmer - experiment 2
Asked if participants saw broken glass (none was shown) "Smashed" group more likely to say yes Suggests memory was altered
63
Why do leading questions affect EWT?
Response bias: answer influenced by wording Memory distortion: wording changes memory
64
What is post-event discussion?
Multiple witnesses discuss what they saw, possibly contaminating memory
65
Gabbert study
Participants watched different angles of same crime Then discussed before recall test 71% included info they hadn’t seen Control group = 0% errors
66
Memory contamination vs memory conformity
Contamination: memory actually changed Conformity: witnesses go along with others, memory unchanged
67
Strength of misleading info research
Real-world application in criminal justice system Helps improve police interviews and reduce wrongful convictions
68
Limitation - memory conformity explanation
Wright et al: participants blended details (e.g., hair colour) after discussion Suggests memory altered, not just conforming
69
Anxiety - negative effect on recall
High arousal can reduce focus on details Weapon focus: attention drawn to weapon, not perpetrator
70
Johnson & Scott - weapon focus study
Low anxiety: pen with grease High anxiety: knife with blood 49% identified man in low anxiety; 33% in high anxiety
71
Anxiety - positive effect on recall
Fight or flight increases alertness and memory Improves detail retention
72
Yuille and Cutshall - real shooting study
Interviewed after 5 months High anxiety = 88% accuracy Low anxiety = 75% accuracy
73
Explaining contradictions - Yerkes-Dodson Law
Memory best at medium arousal Low or high anxiety = poorer recall
74
Limitation - weapon focus not due to anxiety
Pickel: unusual items (e.g. raw chicken) also reduce accuracy Suggests it's about surprise, not stress
75
Support for anxiety effects - Valentine
High anxiety (measured via heart rate) = worse recall in London Dungeon study
76
Why were cognitive interviews developed?
Fisher and Geiselman believed EWT could be improved using psychological principles
77
4 techniques of cognitive interview
Report everything Reinstate context Reverse order Change perspective
78
Report everything
Report every detail, even if it seems irrelevant May trigger other memories
79
Reinstate the context
Return to the scene in your mind Based on context-dependent forgetting
80
Reverse the order
Describe events in reverse Prevents assumptions or expectations affecting memory
81
Change perspective
Recall from other people’s point of view Disrupts effect of personal expectations or schema
82
Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)
Fisher et al added elements like reducing anxiety, open questions, managing eye contact
83
Support for cognitive interview - meta-analysis
41% more accurate info recalled than standard interview But increase in inaccurate info too
84
Limitation - some CI elements more effective
Milne & Bull: context + report everything = best combo Suggests not all elements necessary
85
Limitation - CI is time-consuming
Requires training, takes longer than standard interview Not always practical for police use

paper 1 psychology (4 decks)

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