Memory Flashcards
What is the Multi-Store Model (MSM)?
A theory by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) describing memory as consisting of a sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
What are the characteristics of the Sensory Register?
Large capacity, very short duration (0.5s), modality-specific coding.
What is the capacity and duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?
7±2 items (Miller), 18-30 seconds (Peterson & Peterson), acoustically coded.
What is the capacity and duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
Unlimited capacity and duration (Bahrick et al.), semantically coded.
What is a supporting evidence for the MSM?
The case of HM, who had impaired LTM but intact STM.
What is a criticism of the Multi-Store Model?
It is too simplistic and overlooks different types of STM and LTM (e.g., WMM, episodic memory).
What are the types of Long-Term Memory according to Tulving (1985)?
Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural.
What is Episodic Memory?
Memory for personal events, time-stamped, and requires conscious recall (e.g., birthday).
What is Semantic Memory?
General knowledge that is not time-stamped (e.g., capital of France).
What is Procedural Memory?
Memory for skills that are recalled unconsciously (e.g., riding a bike).
What supports the distinction between types of LTM?
Neuroimaging studies show different brain areas are involved (e.g., episodic in hippocampus, procedural in cerebellum).
What is a criticism of Tulving’s types of LTM?
There are overlapping systems; some memories involve both episodic and semantic memory.
What is the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
A theory by Baddeley & Hitch (1974) that describes memory as consisting of multiple components including the Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, and Episodic Buffer.
What is the role of the Central Executive in WMM?
It directs attention and allocates tasks.
What does the Phonological Loop do?
Processes auditory information through articulatory control and a phonological store.
What is the function of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?
Handles visual and spatial information through the inner scribe and visual cache.
What is the purpose of the Episodic Buffer?
Acts as a temporary store that integrates information from other components.
What supports the Working Memory Model?
Dual-task research shows that it is harder to perform two visual tasks than one visual and one verbal task.
What is a criticism of the Working Memory Model?
The Central Executive is vague, with little evidence on its exact function.
What is Interference Theory?
A theory explaining forgetting due to interference from other memories.
What is Proactive Interference (PI)?
Old memories interfere with the formation of new memories (e.g., learning a new language).
What is Retroactive Interference (RI)?
New memories interfere with the recall of old memories (e.g., learning a new phone number).
What supports Interference Theory?
Research by McGeoch & McDonald shows that similar word lists increase interference.
What is a criticism of Interference Theory?
It lacks real-life application due to reliance on artificial stimuli in lab-based research.
What is Retrieval Failure?
A theory by Tulving explaining forgetting due to the absence of appropriate retrieval cues.
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP)?
Recall is best when retrieval cues match the conditions during encoding.
What is Context-dependent forgetting?
Forgetting due to a mismatch between external cues at encoding and retrieval (e.g., Godden & Baddeley study with scuba divers).
What is State-dependent forgetting?
Forgetting due to a mismatch between internal cues at encoding and retrieval (e.g., Goodwin et al. study with sober vs. drunk recall).
What are the real-world applications of Retrieval Failure?
It informs practices in eyewitness testimony and studying techniques.
What is a criticism of Retrieval Failure?
Cues do not always trigger recall, making it not always reliable.
What factors affect Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)?
Misleading information and anxiety.
What is the effect of Misleading Information on EWT?
Leading questions can distort memory (e.g., Loftus & Palmer study on speed estimates).
What did Loftus & Palmer (1974) find regarding leading questions?
‘Smashed’ led to an average speed estimate of 40.5 mph, while ‘Contacted’ led to 31.8 mph.
What is the effect of Post-event Discussion on EWT?
71% of participants recalled false details after discussing the event (Gabbert et al., 2003).
What is a practical application of understanding misleading information?
Police use caution in questioning to avoid distorting witness memory.
What is a criticism of studies on misleading information?
They often use artificial tasks that lack the real-world stress of witnessing a crime.
What is the effect of Anxiety on EWT?
Anxiety can have both negative and positive effects on recall.
What did Johnson & Scott (1976) find about anxiety’s negative effect?
High anxiety (knife) led to worse recall than low anxiety (pen).
What did Yuille & Cutshall (1986) find about anxiety’s positive effect?
High anxiety (real shooting) led to better recall.
What is a real-life application of understanding anxiety’s effect on EWT?
It helps in assessing the reliability of witness testimony.
What is a criticism of findings on anxiety and EWT?
There are contradictory findings, leading to no clear conclusion on anxiety’s effect.
What is the Cognitive Interview?
A technique developed by Fisher & Geiselman (1984) to improve the accuracy of eyewitness recall.
What are the key components of the Cognitive Interview?
Report Everything, Reinstate Context, Reverse Order, Change Perspective.
What is the purpose of ‘Report Everything’ in the Cognitive Interview?
Encourages witnesses to provide all details, even if they seem irrelevant.
What does ‘Reinstate Context’ involve?
Witnesses mentally recreate the scene to trigger memory through context cues.
What is the purpose of ‘Reverse Order’?
To prevent expectations from affecting recall.
What does ‘Change Perspective’ aim to do?
Reduces schema bias in recall.
What is a benefit of the Cognitive Interview?
It leads to more accurate recall, with a 34% increase in accuracy reported by Kohnken et al.
What is a criticism of the Cognitive Interview?
It is time-consuming and requires training, making it impractical for all police use.
One way in which researchers have investigated the duration of STM
Peterson and peterson-24 uni students given a trigram then asked to count backwards from a certain number for a specified time-then asked to recall original trigram
One way in which researcher have investigated the capacity of STM
Jacobs-participants are read a sequence of letters/numbers and asked to repeat the same sequence back immediately, an additional digit is added each time tp measure the capacity
