Memory Flashcards
Midterm 2
Memory
The process of maintaining information over time
-everything we do is based on memory (walk, type, get to school, work)
3 Stages of Memory
Encoding - input
-getting the information into the system
Storage - saved info
-retention of information
-computer saves document to hardrive
Retrieval - output
-get information out of storage
-submit word document, pull up from hardrive
-retrieve information we learned in class and use it during a test
Multistore Model of Memory
Sensory Memory:
Short-term Memory:
Long-term Memory:
Multistore Model of Memory
Sensory Memory:
4 key details
-very brief (less than 1 second)
-high capacity
-detailed
-basic sensory information
-everything that hits our senses is stored in our mind for a fraction of a second as a perfect copy
-everything we see
-basic sensory information (sound, color, pressure on skin)
Multistore Model of Memory
Short-term Memory:
-brief (less than 1 minute)
-limited capacity
-less detail
-Elaborated concepts
-only something we are paying attention to
-has a concept
-elaborates concepts (e.g. building and the color)
Multistore Model of Memory
Long-term Memory:
-not brief (minutes to forever)
-unlimited capacity
-least detail
-very complicated
-keep learning all our lives
-fuzzier memory
-memory is connected to beliefs, attitude, judgment
Multistore Model of Memory
Extra information
-everything is processed into sensory memory
-stimuli that we attend to is passed onto short-term memory
-only some of this information is furthur consolidated into long term memory (when we intentionally try to remember)
-when we retrieve information, we are taking information out of storage and putting it back into short term memory, which is what we are currently remembering)
Sensory Memory 2 types
Sensory memory for all sensory systems (haptic, echoic, iconic, olfactory, gustatory)
-Iconic memory: the visual form of sensory memory (less than 1 second)
-Echoic memory: the auditory form of sensory memory (up to 4 seconds)
Sensory Memory
Sperling’s Memory Task (1960)
-studied the capacity and duration of sensory memory
-He showed participants a 3x4 grid of letters for a very brief time (50 milliseconds) and asked them to recall as many letters as possible.
-In the full report condition, participants could only remember about 4-5 letters, suggesting rapid memory decay.
-However, in the partial report condition, where a tone signaled which row to recall, participants could accurately remember most letters from that row.
-This experiment showed that sensory memory holds a lot of information for a short time, but without focus or reinforcement, most of it quickly fades.
Sensory Memory
Change Blindness
Change blindness is when a person fails to notice a change in their environment because their attention is focused elsewhere. This happens because our brains don’t store every detail, relying on attention to detect changes. For example, in an experiment, people fail to notice when the person they are talking to is secretly swapped with someone else. It shows that we only perceive what we actively focus on, and big changes can go unnoticed if they don’t grab our attention.
-our brains are not holding onto any short term memory, we cannot see the change by making a comparison between the two photos
Short-Term Memory
-Only the information we pay attention to can be committed to short-term memory
-this is a fraction of the information in our environment
-if not in use, we will forget this information in 20-30 seconds
-aka, working memory (Working memory is the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information in your mind. It helps with tasks like problem-solving, following instructions, and decision-making)
-limited capacity compared to sensory and long term memory
Short-Term Memory
Chunking
-the different ability to recall amount of information at once
-The “Magical Number 7” (plus or minus 2); we can hold 5-9 pieces of information in mind at one time
What counts as a piece of information?
-chunking (e.g. a phone number rhythm)
-22, IBM, supercalifragilisticexialodious
(we can group this information together to remember it)
Short-Term Memory
Rehearsal
Rehearsal is the process of actively keeping information in working memory to prevent forgetting.
Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition, like repeating a phone number over and over.
Elaborative rehearsal involves making meaningful connections, like linking new information to something you already know, which improves long-term retention.
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited in
-Capacity: total memory capacity of a world’s worth of computers is not equal to the capacity of one human brain
-Duration: Information stored properly is infinite
Some amazing memorizers out there:
-memorize a shuffled pack of cards -33 seconds
-most cards memorized in 60 minutes -1170 cards
-reciting Pi- 100000 digits (16 hours and 30 minutes only)
Types of Long-Term Memory
2 types
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Memory that requires conscious recall, such as facts and personal experiences (e.g., remembering a birthday or historical event).
-any memory consciously aware of and can declare
Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory): Memory that does not require conscious recall, such as skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike or typing on a keyboard).
-previous experiences that affect how we think, feel, and behave without us consciously aware of it
-do not need to relearn
Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit types
Episodic Memory – Memory of personal experiences and specific events (e.g., your last birthday party).
Semantic Memory – Memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge (e.g., knowing the capital of Canada is Ottawa).
Types of Long-Term Memory
Implicit types
Procedural Memory – Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike, typing on a keyboard).
Priming – Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another (e.g., seeing a word earlier makes it easier to recognize later).
Classical Conditioning – Learned associations between stimuli (e.g., feeling hungry when hearing a familiar food-related sound).
-inportant for infants
-babies feel warmth with owner and remember their scent
Priming
-Priming is when exposure to a stimulus affects how you respond to another stimulus without conscious awareness.
-activates web of associations in our mind (pepper and salt)
-For example, if you hear the word “pepper,” you might think of “salt” faster because your brain has linked them together.
-this process activates related ideas in your memory and can subtly influence your thoughts and behavior.
Priming
Balcetis & Dale (2003)
IV (Independent Variable): Participants were asked to identify examples of either lying or flirting.
DV (Dependent Variable): The perception of an ambiguous image.
Results: When primed with the word “flirting,” only 15% of participants saw the word “liar” in the ambiguous image. When primed with the word “lying,” 75% of participants saw the word “liar.”
This shows that priming can influence how people perceive ambiguous stimuli based on the context set by the initial stimulus.
Neurobiology of Memory
LTP and The Hebb rule
Long-term potentiation (LTP) refers to the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons when they are repeatedly activated together. This process makes it easier for neurons to communicate with each other over time.
-neuron is more likely to trigger an AP on another neuron…
The Hebb rule, summarized as “cells that fire together, wire together,” explains this phenomenon, meaning that when two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them becomes stronger, facilitating future communication.
-can fade over time, needs to go through consolidation
The Hebb rule
Summarized as “cells that fire together, wire together,” explains this phenomenon, meaning that when two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them becomes stronger, facilitating future communication.
Neurobiology of Memory
Consolidation
Consolidation: Process of converting short-term memories to long-term memories in the brain
-longer lasting
-cellular changes become more permanent
-changes in the structure of neurons increase receptor sites on dendrites (during rem sleep)
Encoding: Levels of Processing
Encoding: Levels of Processing refers to how we process information at varying depths
-Shallow processing happens when we focus on the surface features, like how something looks (visual -structural) or sounds (acoustic-phonemic), and tends to result in weaker, short-term memories.
Deep processing, on the other hand, involves encoding based on meaning, which leads to stronger and more enduring memories.
The deeper the level of processing, the more likely the information is to be remembered in the long term. So, encoding based on meaning (semantic) is the most effective for memory retention.
Encoding: Levels of processing
Remembering if information is better when it is encoded at a deeper level
Shallow processing:
-encoding superficial properties of a stimulus, such as look or sound
Deep processing
-strengthens complex neural networks
-encoding based on meaning and connections with past experience
-activates and creates connections between old and new information (elaboration)
Involves additional brain regions:
-visual - occipital
-somantic - temporal and frontal lobe
-makes retrieval easier, better recall, remember
-e.g. self-referential encoding (personal connection, connecting to what is relevant to us)
