Memory Flashcards
What is memory?
Process of
1/ encoding (transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory)
2/ storing (maintaining encoded information over time in the brain)
3/ retrieving/retaining (accessing and recalling info when needed to use it in decision making, problem solving or learning)
information.
Sensory memory definition and duration
Initial stage of memory processing, where sensory info from the environment is captured and held by the brain. Allows to process stimuli long enough for brain to decide if it’s worth paying attention to or storing for later use.
Duration: from milliseconds to few seconds.
Key features/characteristics of sensory memory
- Large capacity - can process and briefly store large amounts of information. However most of it is discarded almost immediately.
- Automatic processing - operates without conscious effort.
- Buffer and filtering - holding sensory impressions long enough for the brain to process and decide which information is important enough to storage in short-term memory/long-term
- Essential component for more complex processes like attention, learning, memory consolidation (we wouldn’t be able to interpret in real time).
Types of sensory memory
1/ Iconic Memory (Visual Sensory Memory) - 1/4 second. After briefly looking at the picture you can still “see” the image even after closing eyes.
2/ Echoic Memory (Auditory Sensory Memory) - 3-4 seconds. After someone spoke and stopped you “hear” their words in mind.
3/ Haptic Memory (Tactile Sensory Memory) - few seconds. Feeling the sensation after removing hand.
4/ Olfactory (Smell) and Gustatory (Taste) - help to trigger more complex associations with memories or emotions.
Sperling’s experiment
Participants were briefly shown a 3x4 grid of 12 letters for 50 milliseconds. After the grid disappeared, they were asked to recall as many letters as they could. Sperling found that participants could only recall about 4-5 letters, but when using a tone to indicate which row to recall (the partial report technique), they could remember almost all the letters in the indicated row, showing that sensory memory can hold more information than initially thought, but it fades quickly.
Sensory memory role in attention, perception and learning
Attention: filters and directs attention to relevant information
Perception: helps to organize and process data into coherent and continuous perceptions of the world preventing from experiencing fragmented data.
Learning: first stage, providing raw material that can be processed
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Definition
Duration
Temporary storage system (of regions and networks in the brain) that holds a small amount of information (7+-2) for a brief period of time.
Duration: 15-30 seconds.
Encoding in STM, types
- Acoustic - verbal
- Visual - less effective than verbal
- Semantic - meaning, rare, unless information is personally meaningful
- Kinesthetic (movement) - repeating dance after seeing it once
Four Main STM processes
- Encoding - transforms incoming information into mental representational
- Storage - temporarily holds information 7+-2, duration: 15-30 sec)
- Rehearsal - maintains or transfers information through repetition
- Retrieval - brings stored information into conscious awareness
Miller’s Magic Number, chunking definition
Average capacity of STM is about 7+-2 items
In chunking - grouping individual items/bits of information into larger units - people will hold in STM 7+-2 chunks.
Types of chunking
- Semantic (meaning/category): fruits, vegetables
- Phonological (sound/rhythm-based): poetry, phone numbers, names
- Visual: pattern, appearance, spatial relationship
- Temporal (time sequence): diving routine on morning/evening, presentation on beginning, middle part, end
- Motor/Kinesthetic: practicing moves in steps (dance, sport, musical instrument playing)
- Acronym - OCEAN
- Expert - patterns recognised by expertise in a subject (doctor, chess player)
2 reasons/theories of information fading away in STM
- Decay Theory (Forgetting due to time) - information fades over time if not rehearsed. Cause: the neural activity fades over time if it is not rehearsed
- Displacement Theory (Forgetting due to overload) - new information pushes out old information when capacity is exceeded.
Practical techniques to enhance STM
- Chunking - grouping items into meaningful chunks
- Rehearsal - repeating information verbally or mentally (increases the changes for transferring in into LTM)
- Visualization - brain processes images faster than words: mental pictures of events, processes, people.
- Mnemonics (acronyms, rhymes, acrostics) - more simple so more memorable
- Mind mapping
- Focus and minimize distractions - the better the attention the more likely STM will retain information
- Active engagement (making information personal and meaningful)
- Associations - linking information to existing knowledge (creates stronger neural connections)
Practical significance of STM
- Communication and social interactions - understanding and following conversations, remembering names and faces
- Learning - processing new information, problem-solving, reading - remembering words and phrases long enough to understand their meaning
- Daily activities - remembering direction, following instructions, driving, quick reactions to environmental changes
Conrad (1964) Experiment in STM
Participants were shown letters on screens, two types:
1) Acoustically similar (B, P, V, D, T) - sound alike
2) Acoustically dissimilar (F, H, L, M, R) - do not sound alike
Participant were making more mistakes in recalling acoustically similar letters even though they WERE PRESENTED VISUALLY.
It means that STM PRIMARILY RELIES ON HOW INFORMATION SOUNDS
In everyday life: repeat phone number out loud rather than visualizing it
Peterson and Peterson (1959) STM experiment
Aim: to measure how long STM lasts without rehearsal.
Participants were given a trigram (XJF) to remember. To prevent rehearsal they were asked to count backward in threes (543, 540, 537).
After 3 seconds: 80% of trigrams were remembered
After 18 seconds: less than 10%
Why pomodoro technique is helpful for STM?
- Reduced cognitive load - long work sessions can overload it
- Enhances focus and attention - STM is very sensitive to distractions
- Improves retention (утримання) - frequent breaks prevent displacement
LTM definition, capacity and range
System (regions and networks in the brain) that stores information for a prolonged period, from hours to a lifetime.
It has unlimited capacity
It’s not only about remembering facts, but also skills, experiences and habits.
Encoding types in LTM
1/ Acoustic - using rhymes or songs
2/ Visual - converting info into mental images
3/ Semantic (main type) - relating new info to something you already know
4/ Motor - procedural memory relies on repetition
Types of LTM (two main)
Declarative (knowing what): semantic and episodic. Requires conscious recall
Non-declarative (knowing how): priming, classical conditioning, nonacossiative learning, procedural memory. Doesn’t require conscious recall
Declarative memory types and differences
Semantic - facts and general knowledge and how they are connected to each other. Stored in a logical way and not connected to emotions.
Episodic - personal experiences and events. Involves emotion, associated with time and place.
Types of non-declarative memory. Procedural memory
Procedural - skills and actions, learned through practice and repetition. Doesn’t require conscious recall after mastery.
Riding a bike, playing a piano, driving a car, WALKING
Types of non-declarative memory. Priming
Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to the subsequent stimulus.
Happens automatically, can shape thoughts and behaviors.
Seeing “yellow” and recognising banana faster. Background music in the store, scary movie - sudden noises. “Good Samaritan Story”
Types of non-declarative memory. Classical conditioning
Two stimuli become linked causing an automatic response. Learned unconsciously through repeated experiences. Stored in amygdala.
Pavlov’a dogs salivating, feeling anxious before public speaking
Types of nonacossiative learning
Organism’s response to a stimulus changes over time due to repeated exposure.
Habituation - decrease of response to the repeated stimulus: smell adaptation, city living, crying babies
Sensitization - increase of response to the repeated stimulus: chronic pain or irritation, annoying sounds, pain
Two main types of organization memories in LTM
- Schemas - Organizing related concepts and experiences into categories. They can cause biases.
- Semantic Networks - How info is linked. Network of interconnected concepts.
What is spreading activation in semantic networks? Why is it important?
When one concept activates related ones: apple - fruit - pie - tree - healthy.
It’s important cause stronger connections = better memory. Deeply understandings topic creates multiple links to retrieve it.
Why long-term memory is an organized system?
Because information there is connected based on meaning, relationships and experience.
Difference between schemas and semantic networks
Semantic network is a web of interconnected concepts. Activating one helps to recall others. Main function: retrieve related ideas.
Schema is a structured mental framework (big picture). Main function: helps to structure and interpret new knowledge.
What is memory consolidation? Two main types of memory consolidation
Process of transforming short-term memories into long-term memories.
1. Synaptic consolidation - occurs within minutes to hours after learning and involves changes in synaptic strength at the neuronal level.
2. Systems consolidation - days, weeks and years as memories don’t rely in hypo campus and are transferred to the neocortex.
Types of retrieval in LTM
- Recall - retrieving info without cues (answering a question)
- Recognition - indentufyung previously learned information among options (multiple-choice questions)
- Relearning - refreshing knowledge faster than initial learning due to residual memory traces.
What does cognitive system mean?
Processes and structures in the brain involved in thinking, learning, remembering and processing information.
Cognitive - anything related to mental processes
System - set of connected parts or processes that work together to perform a particular function.
What is working memory?
Cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates that information required for the ongoing task.
6 main reasons/theories for forgetting in LTM
- Decay theory
- Interference theory
- Retrieval Failure (Cue-dependent forgetting)
- Memory reconstruction and distortions
- Motivated forgetting
- Emotions and stress
Forgetting in LTM. Decay theory
Memory traces (neural connections) are weakened when not used
Forgetting in LTM. Interference theory
Similar memories compete
1. Proactive (p - past) - old memories disrupt new learning
2. Retroactive (r - recent) - new memories overwrite older ones
Forgetting in LTM. Retrieval failure (Cue-dependent forgetting)
Memories are easier to retrieve when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions (ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE)
1. Context depending - circumstances, places (learning/idea came to mind)
2. State depending - physiological/psychological
Forgetting in LTM. Memory reconstruction and distortions
Recall is influenced by expectations, biases, prior knowledge. This can lead to memory distortions/biases.
Forgetting in LTM. Motivated forgetting
- Repression - unconscious blocking of painful memories
- Suppression - conscious effort to forget unpleasant experiences
Forgetting in LTM. Emotions and stress
Strong emotions enhance retrieval due to amygdala activation, but high stress can block retrieval.
