Memory

Question 1

What is the research on coding
procedure/findings

Answer 1

The research on coding was conducted by Alan Baddley (1966) through splitting up participants into 4 groups
-acoustically similar
-acoustically disimilar
-semantically similar
-semantilcally disimilar
Findings show that after being asked to recall the words in order straight away the acoustically similar did worse.
after 20 minitues the semantic group was asked to recall the words in order and the semantically similar did worse.

Question 2

what were the weaknesses of the reasearch on coding

Answer 2

Artificial stimuli as the words that they were given had no correlation to the participants and had limited application. No words could be semantically coded

Question 3

What was the research on digit span

Answer 3

Joseph jacobs 1987 conducted a research on capacity through digit span as he gave participants 4 letters or 4 items and asked to recall them. Everytime they got it correct he would add a letter or item to the list. Mean number for letters= 7.3 and items=9.3

Question 4

what was the weaknesses for the research for capacity (digit span)

Answer 4

Lacks validity as it was taken a very long time ago which researches that happened back then lacked adequet control such as participants being distracted easily. Lacks confounding variables

Question 5

what is the research on capacity(chunking)
procedure+findings

Answer 5

The research on chunking by George Miller concluded that everything comes in 7s through everyday observations (seven deadly sins, seven days a week). He concluded that the STM can hold upto 7 items. His research also shows that 5 items and 5 letters can be recalled through chunking- grouping sets of numbers, letters, digits into units or chunks

Question 6

What are weakneses to the research on chunking.

Answer 6

Cowan 2001 states that Miller overestimated the STM and tthat the STM can only hold upto 4 chunks and 5 items instead of 7

Question 7

Research on the durations (STM) prodecure+ findings

Answer 7

Margret and lloyd peterson conducted a research on the duration of the STM through giving 24 undergraduate studens a consonant syllable ( a triagram like ycg) and a 3 digit number to count back from to avoid mental rehearsal. They were asked to recall the consonant syllable after 3,6,9,12,18 secconds and findings show that 3 seconds had he best memory and shows that if something is not repeated it will not last

Question 8

Research on duration(LTM) procedure+findings

Answer 8

Harry Bahrick conducted a research on the duration of the LTM by gathering 392 people who went to the highschool of ohio aged 17-74 and had to undergo 2 trials
photo recognition : They were given 50 pictures from the year book and they had to recall them
Free recall: they could recall people who they remember from the same year.
PR:15-47= 90% 48+=70%
FR: 15-47=60% 48+=30%
LTM lasts long

Question 9

what are the strengths of the research on capacity(LTM)?

Answer 9

Contains external validity as the pictures and free recall actually mean things to the participants

Question 10

What are the weakneses of the research on durations(LTM)

Answer 10

The downside is that some of the participants may have not opened their year book in a long time which means not all variables are controlled

Question 11

What is the Multi Store Model

Answer 11

A representation of memory and how its transfered between the sesnory register, STM, LTM and how its coded and information if forgotten

Question 12

What is the sensory register?

Answer 12

A stimulus from the environment passes through the sensory register. The sensory register is not one store but multiple (one for every sense)
The SR is main stores are the iconic (visual data- encoded visually) and the echoic store (auditory information- encoded acoustically)
The SR has a short duration of half a second but a high capacity such as millions of cells in the eye.

Question 13

What is the STM
+Maintenece rehearsal

Answer 13

The STM is a limited memory which has the duration of 18-30 seconds before forgetting and 7+-2 items but most likley 5. It is also encoded acoustically
Maintanance rehearsal is repeating the information until it passes into the long term memory

Question 14

What is the LTM?
+retrieval

Answer 14

the LTM is a potentially a permamant memory store which has unlimited capacity and many years of duration. It is also encoded semantically
Retrieval is accessing the information to get the information back into the STM

Question 15

What are the strengths of the MSM

Answer 15

Alan Baddleys research on coding for the STM and LTM evidently show that the STM is encoded acoustically and LTM is semantically encoded as we tend to mix up words with similar sounds and words with simiar meanings

Question 16

What are the weakneses of the MSM?

Answer 16

• There are more than one type of STM instead of it being unitary. The study of KF proves this as he was a patient with amnesia and when the researchers read the digits out loud his STM was not the best but when he read the digits himself, the results were better.
• There is more than one type of rehearsal- craik and watkins concluded that there was maintanance rehearsal and ellaborate rehearsal where you link the information to previous knowledge that you already have and join them in the LTM.

Question 17

What are the three types of LTM?

Answer 17

Procedural, semantic, episodic

Question 18

What is the episodic Memory?

Answer 18

Your ability to recall you memories from the past as episodes.
They are time stamped (you can recall around when it happened)
You have to make a conscience effort to recall them.

Question 19

What is Semantic Memory (LTM)

Answer 19

This is where the knowledge about the world is stored. Less personal
Not time stamped.
Have to be consciencly recalled

Question 20

What is the Procedural Memory?

Answer 20

The memory for our actions and how we do things.
Not conscience
not time stamped

Question 21

What are the strengths of the types of LTM?

Answer 21

• clinical evidence from HM and clive wearing supports the types of LTM and both had their episodic memory impaired from amnesia,HM and clive both knew the definition of words so their semantic memory was not impaired. Clive still knew how to play the piano (procedural) and HM knew how to stroke a dog (procedural)
• ## neuroimaging evidence- Tulving conducted many PET scan on the brain which prove that semantic memory and episodic memory are both recalled from the frontal vortex. Left semantic and right memory

Question 22

What are the weakneses of the Types of LTM.

Answer 22

Cohen and squire believed that the LTM was stored into two types
- Declarative- memory that you have to consciencly recall (episodic and semantic)
- Non Declarative- memory that you dont have to consciencly recall (procedural)

Question 23

What is the working memory model?

Answer 23

A representation of short term memory as a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units

Question 24

What is the central executive?

Answer 24

The attentional process which monitors incoming data and allocates the data to the suitable slave system

Question 25

What is the phonological loop

Answer 25

The phonological loop is where it deals with all the auditory information and is coded acoustically.
It is split into two:
phonological store: where it stores all the data that is heard
articulatory process: which allows maintenance rehearsal to happen with a capacity of 2 seconds

Question 26

What is the visio-spatial sketchpad?

Answer 26

The vss is where all the visual and spatial information is allocated to. The capacity according to baddley is 3-4 objects.
visual cache: where visual information is stored
inner scribe: records the arrangement of object in the visual field.

Question 27

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 27

The episodic buffer was added by Baddley in the 2000 where the slave system integrates visual, spatial and verbal information. It also has time sequences which can recall the order of happend in and when it happend. It can be used as an extra storage for the central executive and has a capacity of four chunks

Question 28

what are the Strengths of the Working memory model

Answer 28

Clinical evidence shows that there are different stores through the study of KF. When it came to reading the digits verbally his stm was not effective in contrast to the reading the digits himself. This shows that KF phonological loop was impaired where as the visio-spatial sketchpad was not but still proves their existence. However the impairment may just be from the trauma and not reliable.
-Studies on dual-task performance support the existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS). Baddeley et al. (1975) found that participants struggled more with two visual tasks (e.g., tracking a light and describing the letter F) compared to a visual and verbal task performed together. This difficulty arises because both visual tasks compete for the same system, whereas a visual and verbal task do not. This suggests the presence of a separate system, the VSS, dedicated to processing visual information.

Question 29

What are the weaknesses of the working memory model?

Answer 29

Cognitive psychologists believed that the central executive was not studied as much and there is not much information on it. Even Baddley believed that the central executive was the most important part of the model yet we know the least about it.

Question 30

How does interference lead to forgetting?

Answer 30

Interference happens through interference as one memory conflicts with another leading to one or both memories being lost.

Question 31

What are the types of interference?

Answer 31

proactive and retroactive

Question 32

What is Proactive interference?

Answer 32

This is when older memories interacts with new memories.

Question 33

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 33

This is where newer memories interacts with older memories.

Question 34

What is the Procedure+findings of the effects of similarity retroactive?

Answer 34

William Mcdonald and John Mcgeoh both studied the retroactive interference through giving participants 2 sets of words. The first set they had to memories 100% and then had to memorise the 2nd aswell. The groups were
- synonyms
- antonyms
- nonsense syllables
- 3 digit numbers
- no correlated words
- no new words
The group of 2 lists of synonyms had the worst recall which shows that interference happens when material is similar.

Question 35

v fv v

Question 36

What are the strengths of the interference theory?

Answer 36

• the research on the interference theory has high validity through Mcdonald’s and Mcgeoh multiple tests which are supported
• Baddley and hitch further proved that the interference theory exists through asking rugby players to recall matches at the beginning of the season despite missing a couple weeks of matches ( its varied ) the findings show that forgetting does not occur through time passing but how many new memories are made since then (new matches) so since the game was their last game since, the recall was better.

Question 37

What are the weaknesses of the interference theory

Answer 37

Artificial stimuli
- The use of nonsense syllables did not really support the theory of interference as interference usually happen when two really well known memories conflict eachother, rather than the consonant syllable.

Question 38

What is retrieval failure?

Answer 38

Retrieval failure is when there is an insufficient amount of cues present when trying to recall a certain information which can show that you have forgotten but instead it’s a lack of cues.

Question 39

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 39

The encoding specificity principle by Endel Tulving is the idea that if cues are made to help up retrieve information then the cues have to present while encoding and present during retrieval. If they are not present , they can lead to “forgetting”

Question 40

What are the two types of retrieval failure?

Answer 40

Context dependent forgetting
state dependent forgetting

Question 41

What is content depending forgetting ?

Answer 41

Context-dependent forgetting happens when you forget something because you’re not in the same or similar environment where you learned it.

Question 42

What is state depending forgetting?

Answer 42

State-dependent forgetting happens when you forget something because your internal state (like mood or physical condition) is different from when you learned it.

Question 43

What is the procedure+findings on context depending forgetting?

Answer 43

Godden and Baddley did a test on context depending forgetting by getting deep sea divers to remember instructions incase of an emergency. They were split into 4 groups :
group 1- learn underwater/ recall underwater
group 2- learn underwater/ recall on land
group 3- learn on land/ recall on land
group 4- learn on land/ recall underwater
findings show that the groups with non-matching environment did 40% worse than the matching groups which shows when there is a lack of cues forgetting can take place.

Question 44

What is the procedure+findings for state dependent forgetting?

Answer 44

carter and cassaday did the research on state dependent forgetting by grouping 4 groups of people. 2 of the groups were also given the anti histamine drugs( to fight (hay feather) which makes you drowsy. The groups were:
Group 1: learn on drugs/recall on drugs
Group 2: learn on drugs/recall without drugs
group3: learn without drugs/recall without drugs
Group 4: Learn without drugs/ recall on drugs
Findings show that the people who had a mismatch of states did worse due to insufficient cues which shows that the state also has to be the same.

Question 45

What are the Strengths of the Retrieval failure theory

Answer 45

Retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting is well-supported by research, including studies by Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassaday. Eysenck (2010) even suggests it is the main cause of forgetting from long-term memory. This is a strength because strong evidence, from both real-life and controlled lab studies, increases its validity.

Question 46

What are the weaknesses of the Retrieval failure theory?

Answer 46

-Baddeley (1997) argues that context effects are weak in real life, as environments must be extremely different to impact memory (e.g., land vs. underwater). Minor differences, like learning in one room and recalling in another, rarely cause forgetting. This limits the real-life usefulness of retrieval failure due to context.
- Baddley and Hitch further changed the test but instead of it being a recall test it was a recognition test( whether they recognised the word read to them). Findings show that there was no context depending forgetting and that there is only insufficient cues when tested in a certain way(recall)

Question 47

What is the procedure+findings of the Leading questions

Answer 47

Loftus and Palmer did a test on leading questions through making students watch a clip of a car crashing into another. They then received the question of how fast they thought the car went, some questions either had contacted, bumped,hit,collided and smashed
Findings show that the mean speed for collided was 31.8 and mean speed for crashing is 40.8. The leading questions caused biased to the participants answers.

Question 48

Why does Leading questions effect eye whitness testimony?

Answer 48

The leading questions lead to response bias as when the question is phrased in an intense way the EW will be inclined to answer in a more sever answer such as loftus and palmers study with a higher speed limit.

Question 49

What is Post event discussion?

Answer 49

Post-event discussion is a discussion between whiteness after a crime which can spread misinformation from others with their own memories. Research shows this process affects the accuracy of recall.

Question 50

What is the procedure+findings for the Post event discussion?

Answer 50

Gabbert et el conducted a research on post event discussion through making two participants watch a crime scene from different perspectives for example one could see the title of the book that that the woman was carrying and the other couldn’t. The two participants would have then discussed what they saw and only one of them would go and state what they believe they saw.
Findings showed that 71% of participants stated in accurate things which showed that people would go along with an accurate answers for social approval.

Question 51

what are the strengths of the leading questions

Answer 51

Research on misleading information is useful in real life, especially for eyewitness testimony (EWT). Loftus (1975) showed that leading questions can change memories, so police must ask questions carefully. This research helps improve the legal system by making investigations better and supporting court cases with expert advice.

Question 52

weaknesses of leading questions

Answer 52

-One weakness was that Loftus and Palmer use an artificial stimuli(the video clip) which does not fully show that leading questions may impact eyewitness testimony because they did not witness the crime scene themselves and with a lack of stress it does not reach full validity
-Foster et el pointed out that eyewitness testimony can have very important consequences in the real world but there were no consequences in the research. When there is high levels of stress eyewitness testimony may change.

Question 53

What is the procedure+finding on anxiety having a negative effect on recall

Answer 53

Johnson and Scott tested the negative effects of anxiety through making the participants belief that they were taking part in a lab study. The low anxiety condition participants had shouting in the background and saw a man with a pen covering Greece walking past the door the second type of participants, her shouting in the background accompanied with a glass breaking and a man with a paper knife cover them blood walking past the door. They were then asked to identify the criminal through 50 pictures.
The findings showed that 49% of the low anxiety participants could identify accurately the criminal whilst 33% of the high anxiety conditioned participants could accurately identify the criminal .
This shows during high levels of anxiety important cues can be ignored making recall was.
The tunnel theory is the theory of people focusing and narrowing their attention to the weapon because it’s the source of anxiety.

Question 54

What are the positive effects of anxiety procedure+findings

Answer 54

Yuille and cutshall conducted a study on the positive effects of anxiety through asking 13 out of the 21 witnesses who agreed to partake in the study of the stress levels using a seven scale meter and what they remembered. This study was conducted five months after the crime happened.
Findings showed that even after five months the accuracy of the eyewitness testimony was still high . Further results show that those who had high stress were 88% accurate when it came to the eyewitness testimony in contrast to the 75% accuracy for those who had low-level accuracy. The inaccurate answers were things like height.

Question 55

what are the positives of anxiety?

Answer 55

The fight or flight response which is triggered and increases our alertness and improves our memory

Question 56

what are the negatives affects anxiety has on recall

Answer 56

Anxiety creates a psychological arousal on the body which prevents us from paying attention to important cues

Question 57

what are the negatives of the effects of anxiety?

Answer 57

-Ethical issues: creating a crime scene may cause psychological harm to the participants. Instead they could have interviewed people who saw a real crime instead of creating one. Johnson and Scott.
-Lack of control: for Yuille and cutshall study they did not control all the variables because during that five month period they could have been post event discussions which could have changed eyewitness testimony. They did not control extraneous variables.

Question 58

What is the cognitive interview?

Answer 58

A method of interviewing eyewitness to help them retrieve more accurate information

Question 59

What are the steps to the cognitive interview?

Answer 59

Report everything
Reinstate the context
Change the perspective
Reverse the order

Question 60

what is the enhanced cognitive interview?

Answer 60

The enhanced cognitive interview is a way used to extract more information by the interviewer minimising distractions of knowing when to make eye contact and reduce anxiety to the eyewitness

Question 61

What are the strengths of the cognitive interview?

Answer 61

Research, including a meta-analysis by Köhnken et al. (1999), shows that the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) yields more accurate information than the standard police interview. This is a strength because it demonstrates practical benefits for the police, increasing their chances of solving crimes, which benefits society.

Milne and Bull (2002) found that each element of the cognitive interview (CI) was valuable, with all techniques providing more information than the standard police interview. However, “report everything” and “context reinstatement” led to the best recall. This supports the idea that some aspects of the CI are more effective, and suggests these two techniques should be used to improve police interviews, even if the full CI isn’t applied. This enhances the credibility of the CI among police officers.

Question 62

What are the weaknesses of the cognitive interview?

Answer 62

One of the weaknesses is that the cognitive interview is to time-consuming. An order for police to use it they have to be trained and make sure that the witness stress levels are low and actually doing the cognitive interview may take too much time.