Memory

Question 1

Define memory

Answer 1

Memory is a system of retaining information from our daily experiences

Question 2

What are the 3 basic features of memory and explain them

Answer 2

CODING: The format the information is stored in(sound)
STORAGE: Retaining information in the memory system
RETRIEVAL: Accessing information when it is needed

Question 3

What are the 3 characteristics of memory and define them

Answer 3

CAPACITY: How much information is stored
DURATION: How long the information is stored
CODING: The format the information is stored in

Question 4

Describe the Multi Store Model of memory(MSM)

Answer 4

The MSM is a theoretical model of memory devised by Atkinson and Shiffrin
It includes three seperate unitary stores, Sensory register, Short term memory and long term memory and it follows a fixed linear order

Question 5

According to the multi store model, what are the characteristics of SENSORY REGISTER

Answer 5

-Coded differently based on the sense organ the information is gathered from(e.g. eyes, ears, nose)
-Large capacity
-limited duration <0.5 seconds
-If you pay attention-> short term memory
-If you don’t pay attention-> rapidly decays

Question 6

According to the multi store model, what are the characteristics of Short term memory

Answer 6

-Coding is acoustic (sound based)
-Capacity is 5-9 items (7±2)
-Duration is 18-30 minutes
-Constant rote rehearsal allows information to retain in short term memory(e.g. trying to memorise phone number)
-Rehearsal transfers information to long term memory
-Forgetting occurs due to displacement
-Information that is chunked together can be remembered

Question 7

According to the multi store model, what are the characteristics of Long term memory

Answer 7

-Coding is semantic (attached to a meaning)
-Capacity is unlimited
-Duration is up to a lifetime
-Forgetting occurs due to interference(proactive and retroactive), retrieval failure(context dependent)
-Information needs to be transferred back to short term memory

Question 8

A03: Strengths of MSM-Research support for capacity of STM

Answer 8

P-A strength of the MSM Is that there is research supporting the capacity of STM
E- For example, Jacobs used a digit span task where participants where presented with a sequence of digits and had to recall them in the correct order. If they were correct, they were given a sequence of digits that were one number longer and this would continue until participants were unable to correctly recall the digits in the right order. This is the participanrs digit span. He found that the mean digit span for letters was 7.3 items and for numbers it was 9.3 items.
E- This shows that the MSM accurately states the capacity of STM as it applies to not only numbers but also letters
L - Therefore, it proves the validity of MSM as a model of memory

Question 9

What is the research support for duration of LTM according to the MSM

Answer 9

P - A strength of the MSM Is that there is research supporting for the duration of LTM
E - For example, Bahrick tested participants on their ability to remember students from their high school year group. The participants were given 50 photos(some of people in their year group and others who were not). They were then asked to identify the people who were in their year group. He found that participants who were tested within 15 years of their graduation had a recognition accuracy of 90% and participants who were tested 48 years after their graduation had a recognition accuracy of 70%
E - This is a strength because it supports the MSM, It shows that the duration is long as information can last for decades, potentially last for a person’s whole lifespan
L - This increases the validity of MSM

Question 10

A strength of the MSM Is there is research supporting for the way information is coded in STM and LTM

Answer 10

A strength of the MSM Is there is research supporting for the way information is coded in STM and LTM
Baddeley gave a group of participants a list of either acoustically similar, acoustically different, semantically similar or semantically different words. When participants were asked to recall the words immediately after hearing them, the acoustically similar condition recalled fewer words in order. When participants were asked to recall words after a 20 minute delay, they semantically similar condition did worse
This supports MSM as it shows STM codes acoustically as similar sounding words cause confusion and LTM codes semantically as words with a similar meaning cause confusion
This increases the validity of MSM

Question 11

What is the limitation of the MSM

Answer 11

P - A limitation of the MSM Is there is research that criticises the view that LTM is unitary
E - In the case of Clive Wearing, he contracted a viral infection that led to extensive brain damage. He lost his long term declarative memory, for example he had no memory of his wedding day but he still had his long term procedural memory, for example he was still able to play the piano
E - The MSM believes that the LTM is unitary, however the case of Clive Wearing contradicts this view as he showed that LTM is compartmentalised into declarative and procedural memory
L - Reduces the validity of MSM

Question 12

Explain the primacy and recency effect

Answer 12

-Learning and immediately recalling a sequence of items
-Recalling words from the start of the list(primacy effect) and end of the list(recency effect) is much higher than words from the middle of the list
-Words are the start is rehearsed and transferred to LTM
-Words at the end are within the capacity of the STM
-Words in the middle are displaced from the STM by words at the end
-Shows the STM and LTM are seperate memory stores

Question 13

What are the two models of memory

Answer 13

Multi store model of memory
Working memory model

Question 14

Explain the Working memory model

Answer 14

Devised by Baddeley and Hitch. The WM model replaced the idea of a unitary STM. It believes the STM is more complex and active than the MSM suggested. For example, they believed the STM can complete two different tasks at the same time. WM is made up of 4 interconnected and interactive components: Central Executive, Phonological loop, visuo spatial sketchpad, Episodic buffer

Question 15

What are the 4 key components of the working memory

Answer 15

-Central executive
-Phonological loop
-Episodic buffer
-Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Question 16

Explain the Central Executive according to the working model

Answer 16

-Main part of the Working memory that controls other ‘slave’ components and allocates tasks to each of them
-Allocates resources to the ‘slave’ components by deciding which task is most important and should be handled first
-It is involved in higher mental processes, such as such as decision making and reasoning
-Processes information from different senses and each is coded differently
-May have to handle more than one task at once
- It has a limited, small capacity
-But with practice, tasks can become automated so require less capacity as it has less attentional demands so this frees us to perform other tasks
-The central executive decides what the WM wants to pay attention to

Question 17

What are the two parts of the phonological loop

Answer 17

Primary Acoustic Store -linked with speech perception
Articulatory Process - linked to speech production

Question 18

Explain the Primary Acoustic Store

Answer 18

-Duration (1-2 seconds)
-Remembers sound in the same order they were presented
-Information can decay rapidly

Question 19

Explain the articulatory process

Answer 19

-Capacity of up to 2 seconds of speech
-Used to rehearse and store sounds collected by the PAS
-Information from the PAS is repeated in the loop to prevent decay(repeating telephone number)

Question 20

Describe the visuo spacial sketchpad

Answer 20

-Limited capacity of 3-4 objects
-Codes and rehearses information through visualising mental pictures
-Logie said VVSP is subdivided into two components (Visual cache + Inner Scribe)

Question 21

Describe the visual cache

Answer 21

Processes visual material related to form and colour

Question 22

Explain the inner scribe

Answer 22

Handles spacial relations (e.g. following a map in your head)
Rehearses and transfers information from the visual cache to the central executive

Question 23

When was the episodic buffer added

Answer 23

2000

Question 24

Explain the episodic buffer

Answer 24

-Takes in information from the Visuo Spacial Sketchpad and Phonological Loop and integrates them together
-It helps with tasks that require both slave systems
-Temporary storage system
-Limited capacity of 4 chunks of information
-Has a two way communication with the Long term memory
Has links to the Long Term Memory incase the information is needed by working memory

Question 25

Explain research support from dual task studies for the working model

Answer 25

P - One strength of the WMM is there is research supporting the assumption that STM has separate components, each with their own limited capacity
E - Baddeley and Hitch found that participants could do different tasks if they took up capacity in different stores such as visual and verbal. When participants were asked to compete a verbal task in the Articulatory loop and a separate rask in the central executive, recall was not effected. However, when the same participants were asked to complete two similar tasks, for example both Articulatory loop, then recall on the first task was effected
E - Thereforez it shows that the STM Consists of multiple stores, each with their own capacity. Participants easily completed tasks that work on different slave systems as they are no overloading their memory. However, participants who performed two similar tasks activated the slave system and overloaded its capacity so recall from the first task was affected
L - This increases the validity of the Working Model

Question 26

What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the Wokring memory model
Give the points

Answer 26

Research support from dual task studies
Supported by physiological evidence from brainscans
Evidence against the view that the central executive is unitary
The WMM doesn’t account for all types of memory

Question 27

A strength of the Wokring memory model is it supported by physiological evidence from brainscans

Answer 27

A strength of the Wokring memory model is it supported by physiological evidence from brainscans
Cohen et Al found that when participants were completing a verbal task, the Broca’s area of the brain (responsible for speech production) is the most active, and when participants had to complete a visual task using the VSSP, the Occipital lobe (responsible for visual processing) was the most active.
This provides physical evidence for the existence of the phonological loop and VSSP and also supports the phonological loop’s role in speeh and auditory based tasks and the VSSP’s role in visual tasks
Therefore this suggests thag the assumptions made by the WMM ads correct, thus increasing the validity of the WMM

Question 28

A weakness of the WMM is there is research to criticise the view the CE is unitary

Answer 28

A weakness of the WMM is there is research to criticise the view the CE is unitary
This is due to the case study of EVR who had a tumour removed. EVR performed well on reasoning tests which suggested his CE was intact. However, he had poor decision making skills, for example, it would take him hours to decide where to eat
This is a weakness because the CE is involved in higher mental processes and the assumption of the WMM is that the CE is unitary so higher mental processes should be completely normal or completely damaged. However, the case of EVR shows some processes of the CE can remain intact while others are damaged. Shows rhag there are several components in the CE and each handles different higher mental processes.
In EVR’s case one one was damaged
Therefore, assumptions regarding the CE is unitary is incorrect and this decreases the validity of the WMM

Question 29

What are the differences between the Multi store model and working memory

Answer 29

Processing information is MSM is passive/ WMM is active
STM in MSM is one component / STM in WMM has multiple components
Information in MSM follows a fixed order / There is interchange between components of WMM and no fixed order
Encoding in STM is acoustic / Encoding in DTM is acoustic and visual

Question 30

One weakness of the WMM is it does does not account for all types of memory

Answer 30

One weakness of the WMM is it does does not account for all types of memory
For example, Berz found participants were able to listen to instrumental music without impairing performance on other acoustic tasks
As participants were able to do this as the same time, this is a weakness as perhaps there is a musical memory component with its own capacity
This criticises the WMM as according to it, listening to the music should have overloaded the capacity of the PL and impaired fhe ability of other acoustic tasks
Therefore the WMM is incomplete as it fails to account for all types of memory such as musical memory

Question 31

What are the 3 strengths and 1 weakness of the Types of Long term memory

Answer 31

Strengths : PET scan
Real life applications
Clinical evidence
WEAKNESSES : Semantic and episodic memories not Independent

Question 32

One strength of Types of long term memory is there is neuro imaging evidence

Answer 32

One strength of Types of long term memory is there is neuro imaging evidence
Tulving used PET scans where he gave participants tasks requiring the recall lf semantic and episodic memories. Tulving found that when episodic memories were being recalled, the pre frontal cortex was more active. When semantic memories were being recalled, the posterior region was more active.
This provides physical and objective evidence and shows that there are different types of LTM
This increases the validity of the fact that there are different types of LTM

Question 33

What are the 3 strengths and 1 weakness of types of LTM

Answer 33

Neuroimaging evidence
Real life applications (Belleville)
Clinical evidence (Clive Wearing)

Semantic and episodic memories are not independent

Question 34

One strength of types of LTM is it has real life applications and can improve the lives of others

Answer 34

One strength of types of LTM is it has real life applications and can improve the lives of others
Mild cognitive impairments often affect episodic memory. Belleville showed that episodic memories could be improved in older people who had a mild cognitive impairment. The trained participants performed better on a test of episodic memory than a control group.
-This shows that knowing that there are seperate stores in LTM has led to treatment programmes being developed where weak memory is targeted and improved
-Types of LTM is highly valuable

Question 35

A strength of Types of LTM is there is clinical evidence to support it

Answer 35

A strength of Types of LTM is there is clinical evidence to support it.
Clive Wearing contracted a viral disease which caused extensive Brian damage. He lost his Declarative memory as he had no memory of his wedding day but he still had his procedural memory as he still knew how to play the piano.
-This shows that the LTM isn’t unitary and is made up of seperate stores as one store can be damaged and the other remains intact
-This also shows that the stores exist in different parts of the brain
-Therefore, this increases the validity of the LTM

Question 36

One weakness of types of LTM is that the extent to which episodic and semantic memories are distinct is unclear.

Answer 36

One weakness of types of LTM is that the extent to which episodic and semantic memories are distinct is unclear.
Some researchers suggest that episodic memories are a gateway to forming semantic memories. For example episodic memories(events-learning about clouds in schools) orginate semantic memories(facts-clouds produce rain)
-This is a limitation as the theory of types of LTM presents episodic memories and semantic memories as seperate, distinct stores however research suggests that semantic memories are a gradual transformation of an episodic memory suggesting that they’re is a connection between the two memories
-As this is not accounted for by the types of LTM, this theory is incomplete and it reduces the validity of it

Question 37

What does Tulving suggest about the Long Term Memory

Answer 37

The Long term memory is a multi part system made up of two or more components containing different types of information

Question 38

What are the two types of memory and are they explicit or implicit(Conscious or unconscious)
What is one of these memories further divided into

Answer 38

Declarative memory (Explicit - Conscious)
Procedural memory (Implicit - Unconscious)
Declarative memory is split into Episodic memory and semantic memory

Question 39

Describe the episodic memory

Answer 39

-The ability to remember personal experiences and events from our lives (e.g. birthday parties, wedding day)
-Requires a conscious effort to recall - need to search your memory to recall information for an event
- A single episode can include multiple memories, such as people, places, objects and this is all bound into one memory episode
-The more emotions attached to the memory, the stronger the memory is (e.g. traumatic events are often recalled to due high emotional content)
-Time stamped (remember when they happened)

Question 40

Explain semantic memory

Answer 40

-Contains facts about the world and is always being added to
- Need to make a conscious effort to recall a particular fact
- Represents the knowledge base for everything you know + less personal + not time stamped

Question 41

Explain procedural memory

Answer 41

-Procedural memory is a memory for action motor skills which can be recalled without conscious awareness (implicit)
- For example, riding a bike depends on a developed skill which can be automatically accessed from the procedural memory
- Actions can occur without needing to recall how they happen
- Many procedural memories are formed early in life, this involves learning important motor skills such as walking and cycling which are often difficult to explain how to learn

Question 42

Define forgetting
What causes forgetting

Answer 42

Failure to retrieve information from the Long Term store
Interference
Retrieval failure

Question 43

When does interference occur
What are the two types of interference
Explain each interference and give and example

Answer 43

Interference occurs when one set of information competes with another, causing it to be overwritten
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Old information disrupts the learning and retention of new information(remeber old address, don’t remember new address
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: New information disrupts the retention of old information(If you change phone numbers, you will remeber the new number but forget the old number)

Question 44

Evidence for retroactive interference
Describe the method, findings and conclusion

Answer 44

METHOD: Two groups of participants have to learn paired words (e.g. cat-tree, jelly-moss). The experimental group then learns another list of words where the second paired word is different such as cat-glass, jelly-time. The control group were not given the second list.
FINDINGS: Recall of the first list was higher in tbe control group than the experimental group
CONCLUSION: This shows retroactive interference as new information disrupted the retention of old information

Question 45

What are the 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of Interference theory

Answer 45

STRENGTHS: Support for the role of similarity, real life applications
WEAKNESSES: Artificiality, incomplete explanations of forgetting

Question 46

One strength of the interference theory is there is research support for the role of similarity

Answer 46

One strength of the interference theory is there is research support for the role of similarity
For example McGeoch and McDonald had two groups of participants learn two list of words each. For one group of participants, the second list consisted of synonyms of the first list. For another group of higher in the group where the second list consisted of nonsense syllables(26%) compared that the group where the second list of words consisted of synonyms of the first list(12%)
This suggests that interference (retroactive) is more likely to occur when two sets of information are similar.
Therefore, this increases the validity of the interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.

Question 47

One strength of the interference theory is it has real life, practical applications

Answer 47

One strength of the interference theory is it has real life, practical applications
There is a lot of research on the effects of interference when people are exposed to adverts from competing brands within a short period of time.
Danaher et Al found that when participants were exposed to two adverts from competing brands within a week, the recall and recognition of the adverts messsge was impaired.
Daneher suggested that to improve the memory of the message, the advert must run multiple times a day instead of spread over throughout the week which reduces interference from competing brands
This is a strength as it shows that understanding interference can prevent forgetting in real life
Therfore, the interference theory is valid as it is an explanation for forgetting

Question 48

One weakness of the interference theory is the supporting research relies on artificial evidence from labs

Answer 48

One weakness of the interference theory is the supporting research relies on artificial evidence. The experiments required special conditions such as using paired words. These conditions are rarely used in our day to day life so the research has little relevance to everyday situations.
This shows that the interference theory only accounts for a very specific and limited range of instances of forgetting
This decreases the ecological validity of the research.
As the supporting evidence for the interference throery is invalid this decreases the validity of the theory

Question 49

One weakness of the interference theory is it is an incomplete explanation of forgetting

Answer 49

One weakness of the interference theory is it is an incomplete explanation of forgetting
Forgetting due to interference may be temporary rather than permanent.
Ceraso found that if memory was tested again after 24 hours, spontaneous recovery occurred which is when participants now recognised words that they seemed to have forgotten
This suggests that interference occurs because memories are temporarily not accessible rather than being lost permanently
This shows the interference theory is incomplete as it doesn’t explain how memories can be lost permanently
This reduces the validity of the theory

Question 50

RETRIEVAL FAILURE: INTERFERENCE THEORY
What is the Encoding specifity principle

Answer 50

-For a cue to help trigger the recall of information, it has to be present at encoding(learning of information) and a Retrieval(when we are recalling it)
-If the cues available at Encoding and Retrieval are different or absent, there will be some forgetting

Question 51

Explain context dependent forgetting

Answer 51

-External cues (places, rooms)
-When information is learnt, cues are learnt alongside
-If the cues are not present at recall, context dependent forgetting occurs

Question 52

INTERFERENCE THEORY
What is a AO1 shoeing context dependent forgetting
Say the procedure, findings and conclusion

Answer 52

Godden amd Baddeley
PROCEDURE: 18 divers learnt a list of 36 unrelated words either underwater or on land. They were then asked to free recall the words either underwater or on land.
FINDINGS: In two of these conditions when the environment contexts of learning and recall were the same, participants had better free recall however, in the conditions where the environmental context of learning and the context of recall were different, recall accuracy was much worse. The external cues available at Encoding and Retrieval were different and this lead to Retrieval failure
CONCLUSIONS: His suggests that memory is better when contexts for learning and Retrieval is consistent
When information is encoded in the memory , associated contexts are also recorded at the same time such as places. If these contexts are different at tbe time of retrieval, the information Is more likely to be forgotten ing context dependent forgetting

Question 53

What factors affect eyewitness testimonies
What does one of them include

Answer 53

Misleading information
Anxiety

Misleading information includes leading questions and post event discussions

Question 54

Define eye witness testimony

Answer 54

Evidence provided in a court by a person who has witnessed a crime/incident in order to identify the perpetrator of the crime

Question 55

FACTORS AFFECTING EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY
Explain leading question
What is the opposite of a leading question

Answer 55

The format or the content of a question suggests to the witness what the desired answer is
Open question

Question 56

FACTORS AFFECTING EYE WITNESS TESTIMONY
Explain post event discussion

Answer 56

Refers to any information discussed after the event has happened thag can influence a person’s memory of this event
This can include discussions with other witnesses , news reports or talking with friends or family members

Question 57

FACTORS AFFECTING EYE WITNESS TESTIMONG
LEADING QUESTIONS
Explain the backround
Who did it
What was the aim
Explanation the procedure
What is the IV and DV
What are the findings
What was the conclusion

Answer 57

BACKROUND: Leading questions cab chnage hoe people remeber events and can cause witnesses to give distorted and false testimonies
LOFTUS AND PALMER
AIM: Investigate the effect of leading questions in distorting the accuracy of eye witness testimonies
PROCEDURE: This was carried out in a lab using independent groups design
45 American students were shown 7 films of different car accidents, after each film the students were given questionnaires where they had to describe the accident and answer a series of questions including one critical question
This question was ‘About how fast were the cars going when they —— each other’
The participants were divided into 5 groups and one of the groups had the verb smashed and another group had the verb contacted.
IV: Wording of the question
DV: Speed reported by participants
FINDINGS: The estimated speed was affected by the verb used
When the more impactful verb ‘smashed’ was used the estimated speed was higher(40.8mph) which was higher than when the verb ‘contacted’ was used(31.8mph)
CONCLUSIONS: Leading questions can distort the accuracy of EWT which reduces the validity of EWT

Question 58

EFFECTS OF POST EVENT DISCUSSION
What was the background?
Who did it?
What was the aim?
What is the procedure?
What were the findings?
What were the conclusions?

Answer 58

BACKROUND: Witnesses can be influenced by the views of other witnesses and this can lead to the making false or the stored claims about what they have witnessed
GABBERT ET ALL
AIM: To investigate the effects of post event information in distorting the accuracy of EWT
PROCUDEURE: Participants were split into pairs and each participant watched the video of the same crime , but from different viewpoints
This meant that each participant could see elements in the event that the other could not , for example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book carried by a young women
- Both participants then discuss what they had seen before individually completing test of recall
- In the control group that was no discussion before the test of recall
FINDINGS: In the experimental group, 71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion. The corresponding figure in the control condition was 0%
CONCLUSIONS: Witnesses often change their memory and go along with the accounts of others to wins Social approval or becuase they belive other witnesses are right and they are wrong

Question 59

One strength of research into Misleading information is it is highly reliable

Answer 59

One strength of research into Misleading information is it is highly reliable
Loftus used a variety of controlled experiments which showed different examples of EWT. She had high control over extraneous variables and used a standardised procedure which made her experiments replicable
This means other researchers could repeat the study to check for consistency
In fact, Loftus conducted a large number of studies into EWT and found the same outcome in all studies which was Misleading information can distort the accuracy of memory
Loftus produced replicable research through the use of controlled methods and standardised procedures which provides reliable results on the effects of leading questions on eye witness testimonies

Question 60

One strength of Loftus and Palmer’s research is it has real life, practical applications which are important in cases where the consequences of inaccurate EWT are serious

Answer 60

One strength of Loftus and Palmer’s research is it has real life, practical applications which are important in cases where the consequences of inaccurate EWT are serious
Loftus’s research showed that leading questions can significantly distort memory
This is a strength as understanding this informs interviews to avoid asking biased, leading questions when gathering information from witnesses
This improves the accuracy of the recall of events
Therefore, the findings from Loftus’s research are useful as it can improve lives

Question 61

One weakness of Loftus’s research is that the task used to test Misleading information is artificial

Answer 61

One weakness of Loftus’s research is that the task used to test Misleading information is artificial
Loftus used a film of a car accident for practical and ethical reasons
However, it is difficult to reproduce real life EWT conditions in a lab as real life events often take place unexpectedly and in an atmosphere of high tension
This is a weakness as the results of the study may not be applicable to real life as the results would be significantly different
Furthermore, Foster et Al found that if participants thought they were watching a real life robbery that was important to a real trial, their identification of the robber was much more accurate than of they did not.
This means the study has limited ecological validity which decreases the validity of Loftus’s research

Question 62

Leading questions
One weakness of Loftus’s research is there is contradictory evidence from real life research

Answer 62

One weakness of Loftus’s research is there is contradictory evidence from real life research
For example, Yuille and Cutshall studed a real life shooting outside a gun shop in Canada. After five months, they asked witnesses two Misleading questions and found that it it did not change the recall accuracy from their original statements.
This is a problem as it refutes Loftus’s findings and sblws that Misleading information doesn’t affect the accuracy of EWT in real life incidences.
This reduces the validity of Loftus’s findings and conclusions.

Question 63

RETRIEVAL FAILURE
Explain state dependent forgetting

Answer 63

-Internal cues such as mood, emotional state, physiological state of person when they first learn the information
-If the internal cues are absent at recall, it can lead to state dependent forgetting(change in emotional state)

Question 64

RETRIEVAL FAILURE
Explain a study that shows state dependent forgetting
Procedure
Findings
Conclusions

Answer 64

PROCEDURE: Male volunteers has to learn a list of words when they were either drunk or sore. After 24 hours, they had to recall the list of words. Some were sobre and others got drunk again
FINDINGS: participants had higher recall when in the same physiological state at learning and recall(drunk-drunk, sobre-sobre)
CONCLUSIONS: This suggests that if mental or physiological states are different at the time of Encoding and Retrieval, for getting is more likely to occur

Question 65

What are two strengths and two weaknesses of retrieval failure

Answer 65

STRENGTHS: Research support for state dependent forgetting
Has practical applications
WEAKNESSES: Artificial evidence
Extent of forgetting depends on the way memory is being tested

Question 66

One strength of the Retrieval failure explanation of forgetting is there is research support for state dependent forgetting

Answer 66

Carter and cassaday have participants either an antihistamine that causes drowsiness of a placebo and had them learnt list of words. After, they had to take antihistamines or a placebo and were asked to recall the same wordsm they found that recall was higher when participants were in the same phsyicological state than when they were in a different physiological state.
This shows that if an internal cue is present during encoding and retrieval, you are more likely to remember the information. If the internal cue is absent at recall, forgetting is more likely to occur.
This, therefore, increases the validity of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Question 67

A strength of the retrieval failure ad an explanation for forgetting is it has practical applications

Answer 67

A strength of the retrieval failure ad an explanation for forgetting is it has practical applications
Abernethy suggested that when you try to recall information imagine yourself in the room where information was learnt in(mental reinstatement) to rigger the recall of information.
This is equally as effective as physically going into the room where information was learnt(context reinstatement)
This is a strength as research on Retrieval failure has led to ways to improve recall in everyday life as you can mentally recreate cues to trigger the recall of information
This shows the retrieval failure is not purely theoretical and can be applied to real life

Question 68

A limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting is the evidence it relies on is too artificia

Answer 68

A limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting is the evidence it relies on is too artificial
For example in Godden and Baddeley’s research, the contexts of learning and recall were extremely different as they used being underwater and on land.
In the real world, the environments for learning and recall are usually more similar so a change in environment would be less likely to lead to forgetting
This limits the application of retrieval failure to explain forgetting in real life as it suggests retrieval failure is due to contextual cues but it doesn’t explain forgetting in most everyday situations
Since the supporting evidence is invalid this reduces the validity of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Question 69

One limitation of retrieval failure is the extent of forgetting depends on the way memory is being tested

Answer 69

One limitation of retrieval failure is the extent of forgetting depends on the way emmeory is being tested
When recognition was tested,although the context for learning and Retrieval were different, the recognition accuracy was the same as there was no context dependent effect
Shows that context only affects memory when free recall is tested but recognition is unaffected
This shows thag retrieval failure is an incomplete explanation for forgetting as it is not applicable in all situations

Question 70

What is 1 strength and 3 weaknesses of anxiety and EWT

Answer 70

STRENGTHS: Reliable
WEAKNESSES: Artificial, contradictory real life research, breaks ethical guidelines

Question 71

One strength of Loftus’s research into how anxiety effets EWT is that it is highly reliable

Answer 71

One strength of Loftus’s research is that it is highly reliable
Loftus used a range of controlled experiments which showed different examples of EWT. She had high control over extraneous variables and used standardised procedures which made her studied replicable. For example, in Loftus and Burns’ study, all the participants in one condition, for example high anxiety, would watch the same, exact video.
This means other researchers can repeat the experiment to check for similar findings
In fact, Loftus carried kjt a large number of studies into EWT and found the same outcome for all of them which is heightened anxiety can reduce the accuracy of EWT
By using controlled and standardised procedures, Loftus has been able to produce replicable research on the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT

Question 72

One limitation of research into the effects of anxiety is the task used in the research is artificial

Answer 72

One limitation of research into the effects of anxiety is the task used in the research is artificial
For example, Loftus and Burn jsed a video of a simulated robbery for practical and ethical reasons. However, it is difficult to reproduce real life EWT conditions in a lab as real life events often happen unexpectedly and in an atmosphere of high tension
These means the results are not applicable to real life where events might be recalled differently compared to a lab
Furthermore, Foster et Al dound thag if participants thought they were watching a real life robbery important to a real trial their identification of the robber was much more accurate than if they did not
The research in controlled settings lacks ecological validity which might not be helpful in understanding the effects of anxiety in real life

Question 73

One limitation of anxiety and EWT is there is contradictory real life research

Answer 73

One limitation of anxiety and EWT is there is contradictory real life research
Christianson and Hubinette carried out a natural experiment where they found emotional arousal actually increases the accuracy of memory. They questioned 110 witnesses who saw 22 real bank robberies. They found that witnesses who had been threatened in some way had higher accuracy of recall of details than those who has been onlookers and less emotionally aroused.
This completely opposes Loftus’s findings as it shows that heightened anxiety increases the accuracy of recall in real life compared to artificial surroundings. This reduces the validity of Loftus’s methodology and findings.

Question 74

One limitation of research into the effects of anxiety of EWT is that it breaks ethical guidelines

Answer 74

One limitation of research into the effects of anxiety of EWT is that breaks ethical guidelines.
For example, the methods used to induce anxiety (violent clips in Loftus and Burns’ study) are likely to cause mild harm and this is an issue becuase psychologists are not allowed to cause unnecessary harm to participants.
Also, it is ethical to get informed consent from participants but this cannot be done as it will reduce the validity of the research. This means researchers need to decieve their participants by hiding the aim of the experiment
This decreases the credibility of research into the effects of anxiety on EWT

Question 75

What is the Congitive Interview
What are the 4 structured stages and acronyms

Answer 75

A police technique which encourages witnesses to recreate the original context using 4 structured stages:
Colourful Rabbits
Run Everywhere
Causing People (to)
Reverse Order
Context reinstatement
Report Everything
Changed Perspective
Reverse Order

Question 76

HOW TO IMPROVE THE ACCURACY OF COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS
Describe context reinstatement
How does it improve recall

Answer 76

CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT: Interviewer encourages the interviewee to mentally recreate the environment(weather/smells/people nearby) and how they were feeling by asking the interviewee to think back to before, during and after the event
-If there is mental consistency between the incident and mental recreation, witnesses will recall more details. The mental recreation also triggers details of the event which increases accuracy.

Question 77

HOW TO IMPROVE THE ACCURACY OF COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS
Describe Report everything
How does it improve recall

Answer 77

REPORT EVERYTHING: Report every detail about the event you can recall event if it seems trivial
-Unstrained recall will help remember any information that they have mentally edited out
Responsibility of the interviewer to decide what is and isn’t important

Question 78

HOW TO IMPROVE THE ACCURACY OF COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS
Describe Recall from changed perspective
How does it improve recall

Answer 78

RECALL FROM CHANGED PERSPECTIVE: Describe the incident from the viewpoint of other people who were present at the time
-Provides a more complete recollection of the event and increases accuracy of recall

Question 79

HOW TO IMPROVE THE ACCURACY OF COGNITIVE INTERVIEWS
Describe Recall in reverse order
How does it improve recall

Answer 79

RECALL IN REVERSE ORDER: Describes the event in reverse order
-Helps verify the accuracy of tbe original testimony that was decribed in chronological order

Question 80

What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of Cognitive interviews

Answer 80

STRENGTHS:Increases the accuracy of recall, More accurate recall compared to other interview methods
WEAKNESSES: Requires a significant amount of time and resources
Increases inaccurate information

Question 81

One strength of Cognitive Interviews is there is research support suggesting the techniques used increase accuracy of recall

Answer 81

One strength of Cognitive Interviews is there is research support suggesting the techniques used increase accuracy of recall
Milne and Bull found that each technique individually produced more information than the standard police interview. They also found that a combination of Report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other conditions.
This shows that congitive interviews produce better recall accuracy of EWT compared to standard police interviews
Therefore, Cognitive interviews can be considered valuable in improving recall of EWT.

Question 82

One strength of Cognitive Interviews is there is evidence showing that it produces the most accurate recall compared to other interview methods

Answer 82

One strength of Cognitive Interviews is there is evidence showing that it produces the most accurate recall compared to other interview methods
Geiselman et Al showed participants videos of simulated violent crimes. After 48 hours, they were interviewed about the films by an experience Los Angeles police officer using a cognitive interview, hypnosis or a standard police interview.
He found that congitive interviews had the most accurate recall, followed by hypnosis and then the standard police interview.
This shows that congitive interviews are the most effective interview method as they rooduce the most accurate recall compared to other interview methods.
This suggests that congitive interviews are the best method for police to use when gathering information from EWT.

Question 83

One limitation of Congitive interviews is it requires a significant amount of time and resources

Answer 83

One limitation of Congitive interviews is it requires a significant amount of time and resources
Cognitive interviews use a range of different techniques to gather information from witnesses which requires more time than standard interviews
This is unsuitable in situations where there are many witnesses so using congitive interviews can be too time consuming
Also need to invest in resources for example to provide special training for police however many police forces face financial restrictions so are unable to fo this
This means Congitive interviews can’t be used in all situations due to these restrictions and therfore reduces its validity

Question 84

A limitation of Congitive interviews is it can encourage witnesses to recall inaccurate information

Answer 84

A limitation of Congitive interviews is it can encourage witnesses to recall inaccurate information
Kohnken et al carried out a meta analysis(study of other studies) on 55 studies and found an 81% increase of correct information but also a 61% increase of incorrect information when compared to standard police interviews.
This is a limitation as it shows that congitive interviews encourage witnesses to recall more false information aswell as accurate information compared to a standard interview. Therefore, although cognitive interviews are used for obtaining additional information, a lot of it is innacurate, therefore reducing the validity of congitive interviews.