Memory Flashcards
The capacity for the brain to store, reproduce and recall information that have been learned.
Memory
Three major processes involved in memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
In order to form new memories..
Information must be changed to a usable form
A process that forms new memories, where information is changed into a usable form
Encoding
After the information is successfully encoded it then __________ in memory for later use.
Stored
The ____________ process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.
Retrieval
Memories that are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds
Short term memories
Memory mostly consists of the information we are currently focusinf on and thinking about.
Short-term memories
These memories lies outside of our immediate awareness, but can draw them from consciousness when needed
Long-term memories
Memories that are capable to endure much longer, lasting day, weeks, months or even decades
Long-term memory
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
Lethologica
One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the
Semantic network model
A model which suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories
Semantic network model
Thre separate stages of memory
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Earliest stage of memory where sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time. No longer than half-second for visual information, and 3 to 4 seconds for auditory information.
Sensory Memory
Active memory. Information we are currently aware of or thinking about. Approx. 20-30 seconds kept in active memory.
Short-term memory
Short-term memory is also interchangeable with
Working memory
Continuing stage of information.
Long-term memory
Forgetting is under this topic
Losing Memory
Four basic explanations why forgetting occurs:
Failure to store
Interference
Motivated forgetting
Retrieval failure
It is achieved through the process kd encoding, through either short or long-term memory.
Memory Storage
Information is filtered and modified for storage in short-term memory.
Process of memory encoding
If information is deemed important or useful it is transferred to
Long-term memory
The way long-term memories are stored is similar to a:
Digital compression
Can be affected by traumatic brain injury or lesions
Long-term memory
A deficit in memory which can be caused by brain damage
Amnesia
Inability to store new memories
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to retrieve old memories
Retrograde Amnesia
Suggests that memories being encoded are converted into vectors, with each value in the vector representing different attribute of the item to be encoded.
Multi-Trace Distributed Memory Model
Model that assumes that neurons form a complex network with other neurons, forming a highly interconnected network. Connections are made in the process of memory storage, strengthened through use, and weakened through disuse.
Neural Network Model
Now refered to as search-of-associative-memory (SAM) model.
Dual-store memory search model
The connections between neurons are the source of memories, and the strength of connections corresponds to how well a memory is stored.
Network Models of Memory
Newtwork models are based on the concept of connectionism
Connectionism and Network Models
Key to understanding network models
Neural units that are activated together strengthen connections between themselves.
More of a metaphor than an actual biologicak theory, but useful for understanding hiw neurons fire and wire with each other. This model emphasizes learning and other cognitive phenomena in the creation and storage memory.
Paralled Distributed Processing Model
Amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory varies.
Capacity
Refers to the processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate information.
Working memort
Suggested that tall short-term memories were automatically plaved in long-term memory after a certain amount of time.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
Breaking up information into smaller pieces
Chunking
Going over information repeatedly until critical information is committed to memory.
Rehearsal
_______ may also help with increasing short-term memory.
Exercise
Challenging yourself to remember series of items
Practice
Looking for ways to rekate units to each other in meaningful ways.
Look for Connections
Linking groups of items to things from memory in order for it to be memorable
Make associations
Mnemonics
Incorporate other Memory Strategies
Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory, Procedural Memory, Associative Memory, Non-Associative
usually refers to all the memories and information that can be evoked consciously. The encoding of explicit memories is done in the hippocampus but they are stored somewhere in the temporal lobe of the brain.
Explicit Memory
Other name of explicit memory
Declarative memory
Two types of explicit memory
Episodic and Semantic
stores information about events that happen in a person’s life. It refers to knowing the time and place and details of events.
Episodic memory
is responsible for the storage of factual information such as the meaning of words or general knowledge of things.
Semantic memory
is the memory of motor skills and it is responsible for knowing how to do things. This memory is automatic i.e. it works at an unconscious level.
Procedural memory
is the opposite of declarative memory. It refers to the movement of the body in
using objects.
Implicit memory
usually refers to the storage and retrieval of specific information through association. The acquisition of this type of memory is carried out with two types of conditioning. One is classical conditioning and the other is operant conditioning.
Associative memory
refers to the learning of new behaviors mainly through repeated exposure to a single type of stimuli. The new behavior is classified into habituation and sensitization; habituation is the decrease in response to repeated stimuli while sensitization is an
increased response to repeated stimuli.
Non-associative memory
Studies have shown that exposure to certain stimuli influences the response of a person to stimuli that are presented later. This effect of previous memory on new information is what we call _______.
priming
In some cases, loss of long-term memory may be a result of ___________. The causes are:
Alcohol.
Brain infections.
Brain tumors.
Stroke.
Oxygen deficiency.
Drug abuse.
brain injury
Examples of these causes include:
Depression and anxiety.
Vitamin B-12 deficiency.
Hydrocephalus.
Mental health problems.
Reversible causes
signs and symptoms of ____ ____ ______ ____:
Forgetting early life events.
Mixing up names of persons and places.
Excessive irritability and mood changes.
Forgetting common and easy words.
Getting lost in previously familiar places.
Trouble in recalling details of events.
Taking a longer time to do familiar tasks.
Causes of Memory Loss
long-term memory loss
This is the largest component of autobiographical memory, containing three separate but related
domains:
Memory for specific events that have happened to you.
Memory for general events, which tells you the broad sequence of actions in events such
as going to a restaurant or going to the dentist.
A potted summary of your life, which enables you to answer such questions as, “Where did you go to school?”, “Where were you working last year?
Memory for Events
refers to memory operations that routinely occur in one’s daily environment.
Examples include remembering names, remembering plans for the day, recalling items that one needs to purchase at the grocery store, remembering and remembering telephone numbers, directions, or recent newsworthy events.
Everyday memory
contains information about you, and about personal experiences. Emotions, the “facts” that describe you and make you unique, the facts of your life, and the experiences you have had, are all contained in separate domains, and processed differently. Your memory for emotions can help you modify your moods.
Autobiographical memory
are a type of long-term memory. These memories are focused around specific, shocking, emotional events.
Flashbulb memories
four main types of encoding:
Acoustic Encoding
Visual Encoding
Tactile Encoding
Semantic Encoding
It includes the processing and encoding of auditory inputs such as sound, words etc. for storage and later retrieval. Further, this process is supported by phonological loop, this concept helps input/content present in the echoic memory to be sub-vocally rehearsed which in turn helps in remembering process.
Acoustic Encoding
Images and visual sensory information are en- coded. The storage of this type of information is temporary which is in the iconic memory before it is processed further and put into long-term memory. Amygdala (within the medial temporal lobe of the brain which plays an essential role in the handling of emotional re- actions) has a key role to
play in putting in the visual sensory information; it allows visual input along with input from other structures and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.
Visual Encoding
It is about the ability to retrieve statements or events in the exact order in which they occurred. The sequence may be of the chronological events in our autobiographical memories, or the sequence of the different segments of a sentence, with the intention to make sense of them.
Serial Recall
It is a concept in which an individual is provided with a list of items to memorize and is then required to answer with the help of cues or guides.
Cued Recall
It represents the process by which an individual is presented with a list of statements to memorize and then are told to retrieve them in any random order
Free Recall
processing effect were the creation of Robert S. Lockhart and Fergus 1. M. Craikin 1972. The duo introduced this model as an alternative to prior memory theories which had divided memory into sensory, working and long-term stages. Memories that were deeply processed led to longer lasting memories while shallow processing led to memories that decayed
easily.
Level of Processing Model
In this model memory is seen as a simultaneous (all at the same time) process, with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of mental networks ‘entrenched’ across the brain.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model (PDP)
The groupings on the periphery enclose mutually exclusive information. All of the characters and attributes are connected in a mutually excitatory network. If the network is well practiced, that is, if the connections between units are established, then we can retrieve the properties of a given individual.
Jets and Sharks
formalized concepts that date to the first days of psychology; many of the ideas fundamental to the modal model, such as the distinction between short-term memories and long-term memories, can be found in early writings such as James, and the modal model was informed by numerous findings resulting from the pursuit of experimental psychology, such as Ebbinghaus.
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model 1968
Processes Involved in the Model
Attention
Rehearsal
Appraisal
: It transfers information acquired from the senses to STM. The phase of attention selects from a wide range of stimuli that reach the senses. Only the relevant information is passed on to the STM, and rest being unimportant ignored are ignored. Hence, 99% of information is missed at this level itself.
Attention
: This exemplar is of simple nature and is very helpful in doing investigation. Various other prototypes begin with multiple storage systems and then keep accumulating other information to it.
Other researches indicating parallel working of two variant storage systems lend support to thisbmodel. As instance, Murdoch substantiated primacy and recency effect. Former refers to better recall of the information that is attended first, rehearsed and transferred to long term storage system. The latter refers to enhanced recall of the information that appears last in the information order and is still fresh in the short term memory. All the storage systems exhibit a differentiation in areas of volume, time length and processing.
Appraisal
: It passes input from short term store to the long term store. For example if a child has to remember the mathematical tables he can learn it by saying it loudly.
Rehearsal
This theory was proposed by Endel Tulving, one of the leading figures in memory research. It is based on the Multi-Store Model idea of LTM, but it suggests there is a difference between episodic memory (e.g. remembering a family holiday in Disneyland) and more general memory.
Tulving’s Model
