Memory Flashcards
How does Treismann’s Feature Integration Theory work?
(Recap)
Feature Integration Theory
- Preattentive stage
-> object is analysed into features (free-floating) - Focused attention stage
-> features are combined
Object -> preattentive -> focused -> perception
stage attention
stage
What is the definition of memory?
(memory model)
= process that is active when past experience has an
effect on our later thinking or behaviour
(can be any effect of past experience on present/future)
Memory is the process involved in…
-> retaining
-> retrieving
-> using information
…about…
-> stimuli
-> images
-> events
-> ideas
-> skills
=> after the original information is no longer present
(memory a process with many different functions and contents)
What are the three structural features of memory?
(memory model)
Three structural features of memory
sensory memory
-> holds incoming memory for fractions of a second
short-term memory
-> holds 5-7 items for 15-20 seconds
long-term memory
-> holds large amounts of information for years and
decades like a storage
Control processes associated with structural features
-> rehearsal: repeating numbers in one’s mind
-> chunking: strategie to make stimuli more memorable
-> …
What is the modal model of memory by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)?
(memory model)
. Rehearsal
|
Input => sensory —> short-term <—> long term
memory memory memory
|
output
What is sensory memory?
(sensory memory)
= brief retention of the effects of sensory stimulation
-> information decays very quickly
Persistence of vision
-> continued perception of a visual stimulus after it is no langer present
(sparkler’s trail of light, frames in film)
At is the capacity and duration of sensory memory?
(sensory memory)
Sperling (1960)
Flash array of letters for 50 ms
Whole report
-> Report as many as possible
Result: Average 4.5 letters out of 12
Partial report
-> Report row indicated by sound
Result: Average of 3.3 letters out of 4
Delayed partial report
-> sound 1 second delayed
Result: Average of - 1 letter out of 4
Iconic memory
-> for visual input has a large capacity
(Information decays within one second)
Echoic memory
-> for sound lasts a few seconds
What is short-term memory?
(short-term memory)
= attended information from sensory memory reaches short-term memory
-> window on the present
(current perception,
continuos perception of things over time)
=> stores small amounts of information for a slightly
longer but still brief time
What is the duration of short-term memory?
(short-term memory)
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
-> present three letters folowed by a number
-> participants counts backwards from number in steps of 3
-> after given interval, ask to recall three letters and note accuracy
=> counting to prevent rehearsal
Result
-> strong decay within 18 seconds
-> information from earlier trials interfers with stm
What are the 2 forms of interference?
(short-term memory)
Proactive Interference
-> previously learned information interferes with learning new information
Retrocative Interference
-> Newly learned information interferes with
remembering old information
How many items can be held in short-term memory?
(short-term memory)
Information is not only quickly lost in STM
=> also a capacity limit
Miller (1956)
Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two
-> digit span task
(measuring the number of digits a person can
remember)
-> efficincy of STM increasable trough chunking
(chunking packs information more efficiently but doesn’t change he STM capacity)
Mathy & Feldmann (2012)
-> modiified compressibility digit span task
-> Memory strongly depended on number of chunks
=> only three to four chunks
How can chunking be practiced for effectivity?
(short-term memory)
Ericsson et al (1980)
-> training study
-> 230 one-hour sessions of repeating random digits
=> after training, memory for up to 79 digits
What is the approach of modern STM studies?
(short-term memory)
Problem with tasks using digits or letters
-> can be rehearsed
-> can be chunked
New Approach
-> Change detection
Luck & Vogel (1997)
-> near perfect performance for 1 - 3 squares
-> drastic drop for 4 and more squares
Alvarez & Cavanagh (2004)
Change detection with stimuli of different complexity
-> STM capacity depends strongly on complexity
=> STM capacity as amount of information
How is the short-term memory concept expanded?
(working memory)
short-term storage mechanism
-> there must be more than just storage for interaction between
=> working memory as the dynamic process that
transfers information
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
-> limited-capacity system for
- temporary storage
- manipulation of information for complex tasks
How does Baddeley’s working memory model look like?
(working memory)
Three separable but interacting subsystems
-> allows parallel processing across the subsystems
Phonological loop
-> verbal and auditory information
Central executive
-> Coordination of PL and VSP
-> focusses attention on relevant message
Visuospatial sketch pad
-> visual and spatial information
(still work in progress)
(=> episodic buffer suggested as additional component)
What does the Phonologial Loop do?
(working memory)
= processes verbal and auditory information
-> remembering someone’s name
-> writing down a just heared phone number
-> make sense of a conversation we are listnening to
Two components
-> phonological store
- holds information for a few seconds, limited capacity
-> articulatory rehearsal process
- Rehearsal to keep information in phonological store
What are the 3 pieces of evidence presented for the phonological loop?
(working memory)
Phonological similarity effect
(Conrad, 1964)
= effect of confusing letters or words that sound similar
-> visual presentation of letters, confusions based on
sound
- F, S, X similar sound
- not E similar visual
(phone number presented visually but remembered verbally)
Word length effect
(Baddeley et al, 1984)
memory for a list of short words is better compared to
a list of long words
Interpretation
-> rehearsal and reproduction of long words in
phonological loop takes longer
-> as many items as can be pronounced in 1.5 - 2 sec
Articulatory suppression
(Baddeley 1984, Murray 1968)
-> preventing rehearsal by having participants repeat
irrelevant sounds
=> leads to reduced memory for words
=> elimination of the word length effect
What does the Visuospatial sketchpad do?
(working memory)
processes visual and spatial information
-> Imagining something in our mind
-> solving a puzzle
What are the pieces of evidence presented for the Visuospatial sketchpad?
(working memory)
Comparing visual objects
(Shepard & Metzler, 1971)
RT in object comparison of identical objects depends on amount of rotation
Interpretation
-> Task was solved using mental rotation
(one operation of the VSP)
Recalling visual patterns
(Dalla Salla, 1999)
on average remembering figures of up to nine squares
Holding a spatial stimulus in mind
(Brooks, 1968)
visualize F in mind and specifying outside and inside corners by pointing
Result
-> Usually more difficult when pointing
=> pointing and keeping F in mind both use VSP
What does the central executive do?
(working memory)
= Attention controller
-> focusses attention on task and task-relevant
information
-> suppresses irrelevant information
-> divides attention between different tasks
-> switches between tasks
- coordinates activity of PL and VSP
- retrieves infromation from LTM
- allows “work” on information
What are the pieces of evidence presented for the central executive?
(working memory)
Vogel (2005)
Importance of attention for working memory
-> two groups with interindividual differences in WM
performance
-> Performance in selection of relevant and suppresion of
irrelevant information efficiency
=> WM capacity equals how efficiently irrelevant
information can be kept out
Which brain areas support working memory?
(working memory)
= working memory as “reverberating signals” in at least three parts
-> frontal lobe: executive functions
-> parietal lobe: attention
-> stimulus-specific areas
=> not one working memory area
How do we use Mnemonic devices to remember things better?
(working memory)
-> visualize elements of a list
-> storytelling
-> music / rhymes
-> acronyms
-> acrostic mnemonics
What helps to study better?
(working memory)
-> Elaborate
-> generate and test
-> organize
-> take breaks
