Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding?

A

the format in which information is stored in various memory stores

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2
Q

what is capacity?

A

the amount of information that can be held in a memory store at a given time

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3
Q

what is duration?

A

the lengths of time information can be held in a memory store

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4
Q

what is short term memory?

A

the limited capacity memory store. Coding is mainly acoustic, capacity is between 5 and 9 items on average, duration is between 18-30 seconds

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5
Q

what is long term memory?

A

the permanent memory store. Coding is mainly semantic, it has unlimited capacity and can store memories for up to a lifetime

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6
Q

what was the aim of Baddeley’s research (1966)?

A

research coding in LTM and STM

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7
Q

What was Baddeley’s procedure?

A

used word lists
4 sets of word lists- acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar
participants had to recall the word lists
done immediately to assess STM and after 20 minutes to assess LTM

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8
Q

What was Baddeley’s findings?

A

participants given the list of acoustically similar words had the worst recall
participants given the list of semantically similar words had the worst recall

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9
Q

What was Baddeley’s conclusions?

A

the lists that had poor recall showed that the words had become confused.
For the immediate recall, acoustically sounding words were not remembered well. This suggests STM is acoustically coded
For the delayed recall, semantically sounding words were not remembered well. This suggests LTM is semantically coded

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10
Q

What was the aims of Jacob’s research (1887)?

A

research capacity of STM

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11
Q

What was Jacob’s procedure?

A

developed a technique to measure digit span- how many items an individual can remember, in sequence and repeat back in order

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12
Q

What was Jacob’s findings?

A

found the mean span for digits across participants was 9.3 items
found that the mean span for letters across participants was 7.3

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13
Q

What was Jacob’s conclusion?

A

memory can hold 7-9 items

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14
Q

What was Miller’s aim (1956)?

A

research capacity of STM

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15
Q

What was Miller’s procedure?

A

observed that things come in sevens
also used the digit span technique, but “chunked” items into groups

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16
Q

What were Miller’s findings?

A

found people could recall 5 words, as well as they can recall 5 letters (via chunking)

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17
Q

What was Miller’s conclusion?

A

used the term ‘the magical number 7’ to describe the capacity of STM

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18
Q

What was Peterson and Peterson’s aims (1956)?

A

Research duration of STM

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19
Q

What was Peterson and Peterson’s procedure?

A

24 students took part in 8 trials and were given a trigram such as BNT and a three digit number and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal. They were stopped after either 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds. This was the retention interval

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20
Q

What were the findings of Peterson and Peterson’s?

A

found that STM lasts about 18 seconds after this very few people correctly recall the consonant syllable

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21
Q

What was the conclusion of Peterson and Peterson’s experiment?

A

suggests STM may have a very short duration, unless it is rehearsed

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22
Q

what is a limitation of baddeley’s study?

A

•did not use meaningful material
•words had no personal meaning to participants
•when information is meaningful people will use semantic coding even in STM

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23
Q

what’s a limitation of jacob’s study?

A

•it was conducted a long time ago and early research such as this, often lacked control of extraneous variables. For example,some participants may have been distracted.

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24
Q

What’s a limitation of Miller’s study?

A

•may have oversimplified capacity in STM
•Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM was only 4 chunks which is lower than Miller’s estimate of 7+/-2. This means the accepted capacity of STM may be accurate.

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25
Q

what is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study?

A

•used artificial stimuli
•consonant syllables/ trigrams do not reflect real life memory activities
•study lacks external validity

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26
Q

Strength and limitation of Bahrick et al’s study?

A

•high external validity
•using real-life meaningful memories means that the findings are more likely to accurately represent memory in the real world
•confounding variables were not controlled such as the fact some of the participants may have recently overlooked their yearbook photos

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27
Q

what is the multi store model of memory?

A

a representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called sensory register, short term memory and long term memory. It describes how memory is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered and forgotten.

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28
Q

what is the sensory register?

A

the memory stores for each of our five senses, such as vision (iconic) and hearing (echoic).The capacity of the sensory register is huge and information lasts for a very short time- less than half a second.

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29
Q

who developed the multi store model of memory?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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30
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

a long term memory store for personal events. It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people, objects, places and behaviours involved. Memories from this store have to be received consciously and with effort.

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31
Q

what is semantic memory?

A

a long term memory store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts and what words and concepts mean. These memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately.

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32
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

a long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes out memories of learned skills. We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort.

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33
Q

what are explicit memories?

A

can be inspected and recalled consciously

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34
Q

what are implicit memories?

A

unable to be consciously recalled

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35
Q

what are strengths of the different types of LTM?

A

•neuroimaging evidence
- there is evidence from brain scans to show that different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain.
•clinical evidence- HM could learn new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories.
•real life application- allows treatments to be developed. Belleville showed that episodic memories could be improved in individuals who had mild cognitive impairment.

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36
Q

what is a limitation of different types of LTM?

A

•argument about whether episodic and semantic memory should be separate.
•Cohen and Squire disagree with Tulving’s division of LTM into three types, instead arguing there should be 2.
•very difficult to separate episodic and semantic memory as they are both stored in the prefrontal cortex suggesting some similarity.

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37
Q

what are strengths of the WMM?

A

•Shallice and Warrington’s study of patient KF who had suffered brain damage. KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information normally.This suggests just his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact.
•Studies of dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visio-spatial sketchpad. Baddeley et al showed that participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing both a visual and verbal task at the same time.
•Brain scanning studies support the WMM. Braver et al (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive while they were having a brain scan and found greater activity in an area known as the left prefrontal cortex. As difficulty of the task increased, the activity in the left prefrontal cortex also increased. This suggests that there is a biological basis to the central executive component of the WMM, increasing the validity of the model.

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38
Q

what are limitations of WMM?

A

•evidence from case studies of patients with brain damage need to be treated with caution. May not be reliable as it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences. Baseline measurements are not taken so there is no control to compare the performance after the injury.
•Cognitive psychologists suggest there is a lack of clarity over the central executive. Needs to be more clearly specified than just being an attentional process. WMM could be viewed as incomplete.

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39
Q

who developed the WMM?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

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40
Q

what is the central executive?

A

manages attention, and controls information from the the two “slave” stores. It processes information in all sensory forms but it is only able to deal with one strand of information at a time.

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41
Q

what is the phonological loop?

A

temporarily retains language-based information in auditory form and holds the amount of information that can be spoken out loud in two seconds
•the articulatory rehearsal process of language, allows maintenance rehearsal
•the phonological store which holds auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard

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42
Q

what is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

•temporarily retains visual and spatial information.
•can hold 3 to 4 objects at one time
•consists of the visual cache which stores visual information about form and colour; the inner scribe which deals with spatial relationships and the arrangement of objects

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43
Q

what is the episodic buffer?

A

•facilitates communication between the components of the WMM and long-term memory
•integrates information from the other stores and maintains a sense of time sequencing
•can hold 4 chunks of information

44
Q

what’s the difference between the central executive and episodic buffer?

A

•central executive is the “sorter”
•controls where the information is going- PL or VSS
•episodic buffer is the link between the central executive and long term memory. Before it was introduced there was no way information from the LTM could enter the WMM
•episodic buffer also holds information together and remembers the sequence of information

45
Q

Dual task: if one store is utilised for both tasks

A

task performance is poorer than when they are completed separately

46
Q

Dual Task: if the tasks require different stores

A

performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously

47
Q

what is interference theory?

A

forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten

48
Q

what is proactive interference?

A

forgetting occurs when older memories that are already stored, disrupt the recall of newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar

49
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

forgetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories that are already stored.

50
Q

What did McGeoch and McDonald research?

A

retroactive interference

51
Q

what was McGeoch and McDonald’s procedure?

A

•participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
•participants then had to learn another list of words
•there were 6 different conditions

52
Q

what were McGeoch and McDonalds findings?

A

recall of the original list was dependent on the nature of the second list. The most similar material, group 1 synonyms, had the worst recall.

53
Q

What was McGeoch and McDonalds conclusion?

A

interference is strongest when the memories are similar

54
Q

what are strengths of interference theory?

A

•McGeoch and McDonalds research
•Baddeley and Hitch asking rugby players the names of teams they had played in a season. Accurate recall did not depend on how long ago the matches took place, but the number of matches that had been played. Shows interference explanations can apply to at least some everyday situations.

55
Q

what are limitations of interference theory?

A

•artificial stimuli- greater chance interference will be demonstrated in lab experiments, than in real life, due to artificial nature of the stimuli. Therefore can’t be generalised to everyday situations.
•lacks mundane realism- learning information for a study on interference does not represent real life. Studies are designed to cause the maximum amount of interference. Studies into interference may overemphasis interference as an explanation of forgetting. This reduces applicability of the explanation in the real world.

56
Q

what is retrieval failure theory?

A

a form of forgetting. It occurs when we do not have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.

57
Q

what is a cue?

A

a “trigger” of information. May be meaningful or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning.

58
Q

what is the encoding specificity principle?

A

recall of information is best when there is a large overlap between the information available at the time of retrieval and the information in the memory trace.

59
Q

what is context dependent forgetting?

A

a form of forgetting where recall occurs in a different external setting to coding

60
Q

what is state dependent forgetting?

A

a form of forgetting where recall occurs in a different internal setting to coding.

61
Q

what was the aim of Godden and Baddeley’s research?

A

to investigate cue-dependent forgetting

62
Q

what was the procedure of Godden and Baddeley’s research?

A

divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or on land

63
Q

what were the findings of Godden and Baddeley’s research?

A

in conditions where learning and recall conditions matched, recall was 40% higher, than in non-matching conditions.

64
Q

what were the conclusions of Godden and Baddeley’s research?

A

external cues available at learning help to trigger memories

65
Q

what was the aim of Carter and Cassaday’s research?

A

to investigate state-dependent forgetting

66
Q

what was Carter and Cassaday’s procedure?

A

antihistamine drugs were given to their participants. Mild sedative. Participants had to learn a list of words and then recall the information when they were either under the influence of the antihistamine or in a normal state.

67
Q

what were the findings of Carter and Cassaday’s research?

A

in conditions where there was a mismatch between the internal state in learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse

68
Q

what are the conclusions of Carter and Cassaday’s research?

A

internal cues available at learning help to trigger memories if they are also there at recall

69
Q

what are strengths of retrieval failure theory?

A

•a range of laboratory, field and natural experiments support the idea. For example, Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated the importance of context-dependent learning and Carter and Cassaday (1998) demonstrated the importance of state-dependent forgetting. Research support increases the likelihood that this is a valid explanation for forgetting.
•There are real life applications from research into retrieval failure. Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting helps to explain a common occurrence we all experience in our everyday life of forgetting when the environment changes. When we are having trouble remembering something, it is probably worth making the effort to remember where we were when we learnt it- this is one of the basic principles of the cognitive interview.

70
Q

what are the limitations of retrieval failure theory?

A

•the research conducted to support this explanation is very different to how forgetting occurs in the real world. Baddeley argued that context effects are not actually very strong in real life, Contexts must be very different before an effect is seen. This is a limitation because it means that forgetting due to retrieval failure does not actually explain forgetting in the real world.
• It may be impossible to test context dependent forgetting. In an experiment where a cue produces the successful recall of a word, we assume the cue must have been encoded at the same time as learning. If the cue does not produce recall, we assume it was not encoded. However, these are just assumptions. This may mean that the experiments have low external validity. Reducing the validity of supporting research, reduces the validity of the explanation for forgetting.

71
Q

what is eyewitness testimony?

A

the evidence given in court or a police investigation, by someone who has witnessed a crime or accident.

72
Q

what is misleading information?

A

incorrect information given to an eyewitness following an event. It gives them the wrong impression. This can be during post-event discussion or take the form of leading questions.

73
Q

what is a leading question?

A

a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer

74
Q

what is post-event discussion?

A

occurs when there is more than one witness to an event. Witness may discuss what they have seen with co-witnesses or with other people. Repeat interviewing also creates a form of this. It may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event.

75
Q

what did Loftus and Palmer (1974) investigate?

A

investigated the effect of leading questions on eyewitness accounts

76
Q

what was Loftus and Palmers first experiment?

A

•45 American students watched a video of a car crash and were asked a specific question about the speed of the cars
• Loftus and Palmer manipulated the verb used in the question: “smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted”
•found the estimated speed was affected by the verb used
•shows that the accuracy of EWT is affected by leading questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgements

77
Q

what was Loftus and Palmer’s second experiment?

A

•150 students divided into 3 groups
•watched a video depicting a car accident
•changed the verb when asking about the speed. The control group was not asked about the speed.
•one week later the participants returned and were asked questions including: “Did you see any broken glass?” (there was no broken glass)
•the verb smashed has connotations of a faster speed and broken glass and this question led the participants to report seeing something that was not actually present
•their memory for the original event was distorted by the question used one week earlier, demonstrating the power of leading questions

78
Q

what is the response bias explanation?

A

the wording of the question has no real impact on the participants’ memories, it just influences how they decide to answer.

79
Q

what is the substitution explanation?

A

the wording of a question can actually change the participants’ memory. This was demonstrated in Loftus’ second experiment, where the participants had their memory altered depending on which word they had heard in the original question.

80
Q

What did Gabbert et al investigate (2003)

A

post event discussion

81
Q

what was the aim of Gabbert et al’s study?

A

investigated the effect of post event discussion on the accuracy of EWT

82
Q

what was Gabbert et al’s procedure?

A

•60 students from the University of Aberdeen and 60 older adults recruited from a local community participated. Watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet, but it had been filmed from different perspectives
•they were then either tested individually (control group) or in pairs (co witness group) on their recall
•participants in the co witness group were told that they had watched the same video but they had seen different perspectives of the same crime and only one person had actually witnessed the girl stealing.
•all participants then completed a questionnaire

83
Q

what was Gabbert et al’s findings?

A

•71% of the witnesses in the co witness group recalled information they had not actually seen. The control group did not recall any information that they had not seen.

84
Q

what was Gabbert et al’s conclusion?

A

these results highlight the issue of post event discussion and the powerful effect this can have on the accuracy of EWT

85
Q

what was a strength of Loftus and Palmer’s investigation?

A

•had a great deal of control. It was a lab experiment and therefore because of the control of extraneous variables, we know that the only thing impacting on the DV was the IV. This means that the verb in the question impacts on the rating of speed and the memory of glass. Therefore, the results have greater internal validity.

86
Q

what are limitations of Loftus and Palmers study?

A

•research lacked mundane realism. Task involved watching a car crash. Participants probably guessed they were going to be asked questions about the video. In everyday life you do not know that you are going to be a witness so you might not be as aware of what is going on. Also the emotion that might be present during a car crash will not be there when watching a video. This reduces the validity of this supporting evidence.
•Loftus and Palmers experiment lacked population validity. All of the participants were university students. Students may not be experienced drivers which may impact on their susceptibility to leading questions. The result may not be generalisable to other groups.

87
Q

what were the strengths of Gabbert et. al’s study?

A

•has increased population validity. The study used two different populations- students and older adults. The results between the two groups were similar. This suggests that people of all ages are equally impacted by post event discussion. The results can be applied to more people.
•had a great deal of control. It was a lab experiment and therefore because of control of the extraneous variables, the only thing impacting on the DV was the IV. This means that post event discussion can change peoples memories of the event. Therefore the results have higher internal validity.

88
Q

what was a limitation of Gabbert et al’s study?

A

•lacked mundane realism. Task involved watching a video of a crime where money was stolen from a wallet. Participants probably guessed they were going to be asked questions about the video. In everyday life you do not know you are going to be a witness so you are less aware of what is going on. Also the emotion that might be present during a real crime would not be there when watching a video. This reduces the validity of the supporting evidence.

89
Q

what is a strength of misleading information?

A

•practical applications of research into misleading information. Geiselman and colleagues designed the cognitive interview to ensure that police officers do not ask leading questions. This means that memory retrieval is more accurate. The impact of this is that innocent people are less likely to be convicted of a crime they did not commit based on EWT.

90
Q

what are limitations of misleading information?

A

•research into misleading information uses artificial tasks. Loftus and Palmer got participants to watch a video of a car crash. This is a very different experience from witnessing a real accident, which reduces the external validity of the findings. This means that research into this area may tell us very little about how leading questions impact EWT in real life.
•there are individual differences in the accuracy of EWTs. Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that people between 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate in eyewitness reports than people between 55-78. This means that studies need to use participants of varying ages to ensure their results are generalisable to a large number of people.
•Although research into misleading information shows that it has an impact on the accuracy of EWT this may not be true in the real world. Participants in an EWT study usually know they are in a study. They know that the answers they give will not have horrific or significant effects. In the real world, EWT could have serious and far-reaching consequences so misleading information may have less of an impact on the accuracy of EWT. Therefore, lab studies into misleading information may underestimate the accuracy of EWT as a result of the lack of consequence, reducing their external validity.
•Lab experiments may have low external validity. Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in studies of EWT are the result of demand characteristics. They think they have guessed the aim of the study. This may mean they are more susceptible to leading questions in a study. However, an eyewitness in court may anticipate being subject to leading arguments so they may be more able to avoid being misled.

91
Q

what is anxiety?

A

a state of emotional and physical arousal

92
Q

what is the “weapon focus effect”?

A

Loftus proposes the anxiety caused as a result of witnessing a weapon focused the attention away from potential perpetrators and reduces the accuracy of EWT

93
Q

what was the aim and procedure of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

invited participants to a laboratory where they were told to wait in the reception area. A receptionist excused herself to run an errand leaving the participant alone. The experiment used independent groups design as participants were exposed to one of 2 conditions:
•the ‘no weapon’ condition where an argument was overheard and the individual left the lab holding a pen with his hands covered in grease
•in the ‘weapon’ condition, participants overheard the same argument followed by the sound of breaking glass. This was followed by the individual walking into the reception area holding a bloodied letter opener.
Both groups were shown 50 photographs and asked to identify the person who had left the lab.

94
Q

what was the findings of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) study?

A

those who witnessed the man holding a pen correctly identified the individual 49% of the time. Those who witnessed the man holding a knife only correctly identified the individual 33% of the time.
Loftus claimed those who were exposed to the knife had higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus their attention on the weapon and not the face of the target (the weapon focus effect)
Therefore the anxiety associated with seeing a knife reduced the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

95
Q

what was the procedure of Yuille and Cutshall’s study?

A

conducted a study into a real-life shooting. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses and 13 agreed to take part. The interviews happened 4-5 months after the incident and were compared to the original EWT interviews to the police at the time of the shooting. Accuracy was determined by the number of details recalled and the witnesses also rated their stress levels on a 7-point scale

96
Q

what was the findings of Yuille and Cutshall?

A

the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months. Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate. About 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group. This suggests anxiety can improve the accuracy of EWT.

97
Q

how did Deffenbacher explain the contradictions of anxiety on EWT?

A

Yerke’s and Dodson’s inverted U hypothesis

98
Q

what is the inverted U hypothesis?

A

the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U. Lower levels of anxiety produced lower levels of recall accuracy. Memory becomes more accurate as the level of anxiety experienced increases. However, there comes a point where the optimal level of anxiety is reached. This is the point of maximum accuracy. If an eyewitness experiences any more anxiety than this, then their recall of the event suffers a drastic decline

99
Q

what are limitations of anxiety on affecting EWT?

A

•criticism of the weapon focus effect- the effect may not be caused by anxiety. Pickel’s study- identification was least accurate in the high surprise conditions rather than the high threat conditions. This supports the view that the weapon focus effect may be the result of surprise rather than anxiety.
• Field studies can sometimes lack control. Researchers usually use real-life eyewitnesses for example in Yuille and Cutshall’s study. The researchers have no control over discussions with other people about the event or media they might have seen. It is possible that these extraneous variables may be responsible for the accuracy of recall. This reduces the validity of findings in this area related to anxiety and the positive impact that it can have on recall.

100
Q

what are strengths of the explanation of anxiety on EWT?

A

there are real world applications of this research. Understanding the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT could help to determine the credibility of a witness. We now know that there is an optimal level of anxiety which will produce maximum accuracy. These findings will be useful for those responsible for questioning witnesses.

101
Q

what were the findings of Tim Valentine and Jan Mesout in the Horror Labyrinth in London Dungeon?

A

17% of the high anxiety group correctly identified the actor in a line-up compared to 75% correct identification by those in the low anxiety group

102
Q

who designed the cognitive interview?

A

Geiselman and colleagues (1985)

103
Q

what are the 4 techniques involved in the cognitive interview?

A

•report everything
•reinstate the context
•reverse the order
•change perspective

104
Q

what are the strengths of the CI?

A

•evidence that it works
•meta-analysis done by Günter Kohnken et al combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI with the standard police interview. The CI gave an average 41% increase accurate information. Only 4 studies in the analysis showed no difference in the types of interviews.

105
Q

what are the limitations of the CI?

A

•Kohnken et al also found an increase in the amount of inaccurate information recalled by participants.
•not all of its elements are equally effective or useful. Rebecca Milne and Ray bull found that the four techniques used alone produced more information than the standard police interview. They also found report everything and reinstate the context produced better recall than any of the other elements or combination of them.Casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall cognitive interview.

106
Q

what are the strengths of the multi store model of memory?

A

•there is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems- for example brain-damaged case study patient KF’s STM was impaired following a motorcycle accident, but his LTM remained intact
•it makes sense that LTM is encoded semantically-for example you might recall the general message of a speech but not all the words as they were heard
•the MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research- shows how important Atkinson and Shiffrins contribution was

107
Q

what are the limitations of the multi store model of memory?

A

•some research into STM duration has low ecological validity as the stimuli participants were asked to remember had little resemblance to real life
•Craik and Watkins argued there are two types of rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative). It is argued that elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage where information is linked to existing knowledge.