Memory Flashcards
What is memory?
Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information over time.
What are the three key functions of memory?
Encoding, Storage and retrieval.
What is encoding?
Encoding is the process of transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory.
what is storage?
Storage is the process of maintaining information in memory over time
What is retrieval?
Retrieval is the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored.
What is semantic encoding?
Semantic encoding is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory.
what is semantic judgement?
When an individual thinks about the meaning of the words.
What is an example of a semantic judgement?
Is hat a type of clothing?
Where is semantic encoding associated in the brain?
Lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe.
Where is visual imagery encoding brain activity located?
The occipital lobe is active
Where is organisational encoding brain activity located?
upper left frontal lobe is active
What is visual encoding?
the process of sorting new information by converting it into mental pictures.
How many mental placeholders for visual imagery are created? And what are they?
2 - a visual one and a verbal one
what is organisational encoding?
the process of categorising information according to the relationships among a series of items.
What is mnemonics?
are encoding strategies that improve subsequent retrieval.
What are the three major kinds of memory storage?
sensory, short-term and long-term.
What is sensory memory?
Is a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.
What is iconic memory?
A fast-decaying store of visual information
What is echoic memory?
Is a fast-decaying store of auditory information
What is short term memory?
Is a type of storage that holds non-sensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute.
What is meant by the term rehearsal?
it is the process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it.
What effect does rehearsal play a role in?
Serial position effect
What is serial position effect?
refers to the observation that the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than items in the middle.
What is the primacy effect?
It is the enhanced recall of the first few items in a list.
What is the recency effect?
Enhanced recall of the last few items
what is chunking?
chunking is combining several small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more or easily held in short term memory.
What type of learning is chunking the same as?
Organizational
what is working memory?
the active maintenance of information in a short-term storage.
how many sub-stems does working memory have?
2 one for visual images and one for verbal information.
what is the visuo-spatial sketchpad?
visual memories (working memory)
what is the phonological loop?
verbal information (working memory)
Antegrade amnesia?
the inability to transfer new information from the short term to the long-term storage.
retrograde amnesia?
the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery.
what is consolidation?
the process by which memories become stable in the brain.
what gives consolidation process a boost?
sleep
what is reconsolidation?
memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again.
what is synapse?
the small space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another
How do nuerons communicate?
neurons communicate by sending neurotransmitters across these synapses.
What provides the neurological basis for long term memory?
when neurotransmitters are sent across a synapse it changes the synapse. It strengthens the connection between the two neurons.
How is the synapse changed by the neurotransmitter being sent across?
The connection between the two nuerons is strengthened making it easier for them to communicate next time.
What is long-term potential?
a process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between nuerons strengthens connections making further communication easier.
The first function of memory is to — the information?
encode
Survival encoding involves semantic encoding, visual imagery encoding, and _____ encoding.
organizational
Which type of encoding involves categorizing items according to how they are related to one another?
organizational
Zandra’s teacher tells their students that they cannot forget something if they never “got it” in the first place. MOST likely, Zandra’s teacher is referring to a failure in:
encoding
Mykal has met their brother’s girlfriend three times. Mykal remembers that her name starts with the letter S but cannot actually recall her name. This is MOST likely caused by a failure in:
retrieval
Semantic encoding is to visual imagery encoding as the _____ lobe is to the _____ lobe.
temporal;occipital
what is a retrieval cue?
it is external information that is associated with stored information and bringing it to mind.
what does the encoding specificity principle state?
A retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps to recreate the way in which information was initially encoded.
what is state-dependent retrieval?
Is the process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval.
what is the principle of transfer-appropriate processing?
It is the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match.
what is retrieval-induced forgetting?
It is a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items.
what part of the brain becomes active when you try to retrieve a memory?
left frontal lobe
what part of the brain becomes active when you successfully retrieve a memory?
left frontal lobe accompanied by hippocampal and parts of the brain that activated during initial sensory.
What which sensory part of brain becomes active for sounds?
Auditory cortex – upper part of the temporal lobe
which sensory part of brain becomes active for visual?
Visual cortex – occipital lobe
Information in sensory memory lasts for _____ seconds.
1 to 5 seconds
Before information can be transferred to short-term memory, it must first be a part of _____ memory.
sensory
Alejandro is trying to memorize 15 definitions from their linguistic class notes. Alejandro believes that they can store all the definitions in short-term memory. However, Alejandro’s short-term memory is able to hold approximately _____ definitions.
7
Sabrina is participating in a study where they have to learn how to navigate an indoor labyrinth. Once Sabrina successfully navigates it, a researcher injects Sabrina with a drug, and now Sabrina cannot find their way out of the labyrinth. The researcher has probably given Sabrina a drug that blocks:
Long-term potential
Lamaar’s partner is talking to Lamaar, and Lamaar asks them to repeat what they just asked them. But before they do so, Lamaar realizes what they said and responds with the answer of “Yes.” This is likely due to _____ memory.
echoic
Retrieval-induced forgetting refers to a process by which retrieving an item from _____ memory impairs the subsequent recall of related items.
long term
According to the _____ principle, it would be best to study for an exam in the same room in which one will take the exam.
encoding specificity
_____ memory is the type of memory that occurs when past experiences influence later behaviour and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection.
implicit
On a brain scan, when a person _____ information, their left frontal lobe shows increased activity, and when they _____ information, their hippocampal region shows increased activity.
tries to retrieve; successfully retrieves
Memories that cannot be consciously recalled yet affect a person’s behaviour are referred to as _____ memories.
implicit
what is transience?
Forgetting what occurs with the passage of time.
what phase of memory does transience effect?
storage
what is retroactive interference?
situations in which learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier.
Example of retroactive interference
working doing the same tasks monday to friday and by friday forgetting some of the specifics of monday as the days have melded together.
What is proactive interference?
refers to situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
What is absentmindedness?
It is a lapse in attention that results in memory failure.
What is a common cause of absentmindedness?
lack of attention
what areas of the brain have less activity if attention is divided?
left frontal lobe, hippocampus
What is prospective memory?
remembering to do things in the future.
what is intention offloading?
using external devices to remind us to carry out future tasks
what is blocking?
a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it.
what causes blocking?
retrieval failure
what is memory missattribution?
assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source.
what is source memory?
recall of when, where, and how information was acquired.
what is false recognition?
a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before.
what is suggestibility?
the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.
what is bias?
refers to distorting influences present knowledge, beliefs and feelings n recollections of previous experiences.
what is a consistency bias?
is the bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present.
what is an egocentric bias?
refers to the tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past to make ourselves better.
what is persistance?
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget.
what are flashbulb memories?
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events.
how does amygdala play a role?
it influences hormonal systems that kick into high gear when we experience arousing events.
what do stress related hormones do?
ex. adrenaline and cortisol mobilise the body in the face of threat and also enhance the memory for experience.
what are the two types of memories? (long term)
explicit and implicit
what is explicit memory?
occurs when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences.
what is implicit memory?
occurs when past experiences influence later behaviour and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection.
what is procedural memory? is it implicit or explicit?
implicit, it is the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things.
what is priming? is it implicit or explicit?
implicit, an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task.
which parts of the brain are activated when priming?
brain parts are actually reducing activity when priming.
what is perceptual priming?
reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item (e.g. visual characteristics of a word or picture)
what is conceptual priming?
reflects implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object.
what is semantic memory?
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our knowledge of the world.
what is episodic memory?
is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
is the hippocampus necessary for acquiring new semantic memories?
no
why is episodic memory well suited to envision our personal futures?
it is a flexible system that allows us to recombine elements of past experience in new ways, so that mentally we can try out different visions.
Aperna is taking an allergy medication during the first part of the semester because that is when it is allergy season. Which concept BEST accounts for why it might be beneficial for Aperna to continue taking the medication until they are finished with final exams?
state-dependent retrieval
_____ is a technique that makes certain memories more accessible.
priming
According to the _____ principle, it would be best to study for an exam in the same room in which one will take the exam.
encoding specifity
“How many uses can you think of for a brick?” Norman is asked by the examiner. Norman is taking a test of:
divergent creative thinking
what is aphasia?
problem with language
Diego cannot create mental visual images. Diego has:
aphantasia
With respect to two broad forms of long-term memory, conscious is to unconscious as _____ memory is to _____ memory.
explicit; implicit
what is retrieval-induced forgetting?
Retrieval-induced forgetting refers to a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items.
An elementary school class took a spelling test immediately after learning how to bake a cake. Even though the teacher used the word flower in a sentence during the test, the teacher noticed that many of the students spelled the word flour instead of the vocabulary word flower. This illustrates the memory concept called:
priming
The memory “sin” of _____ is related to how human memories lose detail over time and people reconstruct memories based on general experience.
transience
The memory “sin” of _____ occurs because one’s attention is divided.
absentmindedness
_____ is the assigning of a recollection or an idea to the wrong source.
memory misattribution
Lamar attempts to change an online password. When they create a new password, the site alerts them that Lamar has used the password before. Lamar cannot recall using it in the past; they can only remember their more recent passwords. Lamar is experiencing _____ interference.
retroactive
Sean is taking a psychology course and a sociology course. Sean studies for their final exam in psychology for 2 hours and then studies for the final exam in sociology for 2 hours. Sean then takes the final exam in psychology and finds that they can only remember sociological concepts. Sean is experiencing:
retroactive interference
_____ may be beneficial because if a person has not used information recently, that person probably will not need it in the future.
transience
Many people believe that their love relationships have grown stronger over the years. However, actual data collected over the years indicate that their feelings have remained relatively stable. This is an example of _____ bias.
change
Josette recently changed the password to their online banking site—at the site’s insistence. Josette cannot remember the new password; they can only remember the preceding one. Josette is experiencing _____ interference.
proactive
The flashing red light on the multiline telephone operator’s phone reminded them that there was an important call waiting to be transferred. The flashing light served as a cue for their:
prospective memory
