Memory Flashcards
≥Process of memory
What is storage?
AO1
When information is kept in your brain for a period of time, even up to a lifetime.
Process of memory
What is encoding (input)?
AO1
Translating information into a form the brain can understand.
Process of memory
What is retrieval (output)?
AO1
When information is located in the brain and brought back.
Process of memory
List 3 ways to retrieve memories and what they mean.
AO1
1) Recognition - remembering an item based on the fact that you have seen it before.
2) Cued recall - when you are struggling to recall information and are given a ‘clue/cue’ which can help you retrieve information.
3) Free recall - when you are able to retrieve information without any ‘clues/cues’.
Process of memory
What are the 3 types of encoding?
AO1
- visual encoding (appearance)
- acoustic encoding (sound)
- semantic encoding (meaning)
Process of memory
Outline Baddeley’s research (4).
AO1
The aim in this investigation was to see if there was any difference between the type of encoding for STM and LTM. He used 4 groups of participants and gave each a list of words. The investigation was carried out in a laboratory (highly controlled) and each group of participants were read 12 sets of 5 words and had 1 second for each word; after every 5 words the participants were asked to recall the words. Group A and B volunteered for immediate recall, with group A recalling 10% of the acoustically similar words, and group B recalling 82% of the acoustically dissimilar words. Group C and D volunteered for delayed recall (participants spent 20 minutes doing another task before recalling the words), with group C recalling 57% of the semantically similar words, and group D recalling 85% of the semantically dissimilar words. In conclusion, we encode acoustically in our STM and semantically in our LTM.
Process of memory
Evaluate Baddeley’s research.
AO3
A strength of Baddeley’s research into encoding is that the extraneous variables were controlled. For example, hearing was controlled by giving participants a hearing test. Therefore, we can be more certain that the type of words used was the factor that affected participants’ recall and not any other factors. This increases the overall internal validity of the research.
On the other hand, a weakness of the research is that long term memory may not have been tested in the study. Participants were asked to wait 20 minutes before recall of the words. One could argue this does not mean the words are in long term memory. Therefore, this may mean the conclusion that long term memory encodes semantically may not be accurate.
ADD: lab experiments are highly controlled, but lack ecological validity
Process of memory
List the 3 types of long-term memory and what they mean/refer to.
AO1
1) episodic - based on our experiences in life (events), often remembered through who, what, when, why, where etc.
2) semantic - revolved around meaning, being based on knowledge that you share with others, or may not remember learning.
3) procedural - based on remembering how to do things (muscle memory); not much thought is required.
Structures of memory
Draw and label the Multi Store Model of Memory (MSM).
AO1
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fonline-learning-college.com%2Fknowledge-hub%2Fgcses%2Fgcse-psychology-help%2Fatkinson-and-shiffrin-theory%2F&psig=AOvVaw05jC4UrpQOnFQ00Yd3D3Qh&ust=1696429774154000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCLCK58iL2oEDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
Structures of memory
Outline and explain the Multi Store Model of Memory (MSM).
AO1
The MSM of memory describes the flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The SM is where information from the senses is stored by only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. It is sense-specific, so whiever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held in the brain.
However, if attended to, sensory information moves into the STM for temporary storage, which will be encoded visually (as an image), acoustically (as a sound) or, less often, semantically (through its meaning). STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and duration of around 30 seconds.
Frequently rehearsing information helps to retain information in the STM, and merge it to LTM, which is mainly encoded semantically. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.
Structures of memory
Evaluate the MSM of Memory.
AO3
(Multi-Store Model of Memory)
A strength of the MSM of memory is that there is support for the existence of different memory stores. Baddeley’s research on encoding shows that STM and LTM encode information differently. He found that individuals encode acoustically in their short-term memory and semantically in their long-term memory. This supports the idea that there are different stores for the two types of memory.
However, the the model is oversimplified because it suggest we only have one store for STM and one story for LTM. Research has shown that STM can be divided further into visual and acoustic stores, and LTM into episodic, semantic, and procedural memory. Therefore, memory is more complex than the model proposes and cannot be used solely to explain the structure of memory.
ADD: it supports Baddeley’s use of artificial materials
Structures of memory
Define the primacy effect and recency effect.
AO1
- Primary effect: an individual’s tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on.
- Recency effect: an individual’s tendency to better remember the most recent piece of information they encounter than the information they first receive.
Structures of memory
Outline Murdock’s
serial position curve.
AO1
(on specification)
The aim was to provide evidence for the existence of the separate stores for memory (STM and LTM). It was conducted in a laboratory to control possible extraneous variables. Procedures were standardised to ensure the study could be replicated easily. 16 Participants were presented with a list of 20 words at the rate of 1 word per second. Once they heard all 20 words, they were given 90 seconds to recall as many words from the list as they could remember (in any order). This is called free recall. The test was repeated with the same participants 80 times over a few days, each time with a different list of 20 words. Murdock found that the words at the end of the lists were recalled first (recency effect), and the words at the start of the list were also recalled well (primacy effect), whereas the words in the middle of the list were not recalled as accurately. These results were displayed in a line graph called the serial position curve. Murdock concluded that the serial position curve provides evidence for the separate STM and LTM stores in the MSM of memory. The last few words were recalled because they were still readily available in the STM, and the first words were rehearsed and passed to the LTM store.
Structures of memory
Evaluate Murdock’s
serial position curve.
AO1
(on specification)
A strength of Murdock’s serial position curve study is that it was carried out in laboratory conditions. This meant there was a high control over extraneous variables such aas the familiarity of the words. Therefore, we can be certain that it was the position of the words that affected the recall and not any other extraneous factors. This allows us to establish a cause and effect between the position of the word in the list and the likelihood of accurate recall.
However, a weakness of Murdock’s serial position curve study is that the task was artificial. Murdock used lists of words which relates to just one type of memory. Therefore, the results don’t relate to how we use our memories in other ways, such as for personal events. This lowers the overall internal validity of the research into the primacy and recency effect.
strength applies to all laboratory experiments
Active Process of Memory
What is (Bartlett’s) theory of reconstructive memory?
AO1
(on specification)
Human memory is not a literal reproduction of the past, but instead relies on constructive processes that are sometimes prone to error or distortion (change).
Active Process of Memory
What is a schema?
AO1
a cognitive framework or (of a) concept that helps organise and interpret information
Active Process of Memory
What is meant by ‘effort after meaning’?
AO1
the effort to piece together fragments of memory - we try to fit what we remember with what we really know and understand about the world.
Active Process of Memory
Evaluate the theory of reconstructive behaviour (memory).
AO3
Research to support was conducted by Bartlett (1932). It reflects how memory is used in real life and is more realistic than research that uses word lists. Before Bartlett, researchers used nonsense syllables to research memory. This is an artificial task and therefore does not reflect how we use our memory in real life. From this reserch we can be more certain of how reconstructive memory works in every day life, as people often hear stories and are asked to retell them to other friends or family.
Another weakness is that the theory suggests that all memories are inaccurate or affected by social expectations. Other research has shown that memory can be very accurate, for example in the War of the Ghosts study many people remembered the line ‘something black came out of his mouth’ because it was quite a distinctive phrase. This shows that people do not always actively reconstruct memories; it may only happen on a few occasions.
Active Process of Memory
Give one strength and one weakness of Bartlett’s research.
AO3
War of the Ghost
Bartlett’s original study was conducted with students from Cambridge University who were studying English. One may argue that Bartlett’s sample was biased. Students studying English will be accustomed to reading different pieces of texts and comprehension tasks will therefore have a better recall of the story compared to other types of students. Therefore, this reduces the external validity of Bartlett’s study and limits the support for memory being a reconstructive process.
Study was conducted rather casually with no set standards about where and how people recalled the informatiom, story was unusual to the participants; it may not reflect everyday memory processes
Active Process of Memory
ESQ: Describe the theory of reconstructive memory (4).
AO1
(exam-style question)
The information we store in our long-term memories is changed before it is ‘recorded’. We record small pieces of information and later, when recalling the event/concept, we recombine the pieces to tell the whole story. Each time you retell the story, the elements are combined slightly differently. Reconstructive memory can be affected by social and cultural expectations, as well as stereotypes we develop from movies, shows, the internet, and more. Therefore, the theory of reconstructive memory revolves around the shift of fragments of LTM.
(advanced)
Active Process of Memory
Define the 3 factors that can affect memory.
AO1
- Interference: a memory phenomenon in which some memories interfere with the retrieval of others, usually because they are similar
- Context: the environment in which an event or memory happens - can act as a cue (trigger) to recall previously encoded memories
- False memory: when an individual remembers something that hasn’t actually happened, sometimes due to memory reconstruction.
Active Process of Memory
What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?
AO1
Proactive interference is when a past memory interferes with a new piece of information. Retroactive interference is when a recent/new memory interferes with an old piece of information.
proactive-past / retroactive-recent
