Memory

Question 1

What does the Multi Store Model of memory consist of?

Answer 1

1. Sensory Register
2. STM
3. LTM

Question 2

What is meant by Coding?

Answer 2

This is how we process the information - changing it to a suitable form so it can be stored. E.g. the STM codes acoustically

Question 3

What is meant by Capacity?

Answer 3

This is the amount of information that can be held in memory. E.g. the capacity of STM is 5-9 items

Question 4

What is meant by Duration?

Answer 4

This is how long the information lasts in memory. E.g. information in the STM last between 18-30 seconds

Question 5

How is the sensory Register coded?

Answer 5

Modality Specific
(depends on the sense being used, e.g. visual - iconic)

Question 6

How is the STM coded?

Answer 6

Acoustically

Question 7

How is the LTM coded?

Answer 7

Semantically

Question 8

What is the Capacity of the SENSORY REGISTER?

Answer 8

Unlimited

Question 9

What is the Capacity of the STM?

Answer 9

7 +/- 2 items
(5-9 items)

Question 10

What is the Capacity of the LTM?

Answer 10

Unlimited

Question 11

What is the Duration of the SENSORY REGISTER?

Answer 11

Limited – less than 0.5 seconds

Question 12

What is the Duration of the STM?

Answer 12

Limited - 18-30 seconds

Question 13

What is the Duration of the LTM?

Answer 13

Lifetime

Question 14

Which researcher conducted research to support CODING in the STM?

Answer 14

BADDELEY
-STM codes acoustically as there was better recall with acoustically dissimilar words.

Question 15

Which researcher conducted research to support CODING in the LTM?

Answer 15

BADDELEY
-LTM codes semantically, as there was better recall with semantically dissimilar words, after 20-minute prevention task.

Question 16

Which researcher conducted research to support the CAPACITY of the STM?

Answer 16

Miller

Question 17

Who conducted research to support the DURATION of the STM?

Answer 17

PETERSON & PETERSON
-18-30 seconds, however maintenance rehearsal will increase duration

Question 18

Who conducted research to support the DURATION of the LTM?

Answer 18

BAHRICK
Potentially a lifetime. Recall of classmates remained accurate after 47 years, improved with the use of correct cues (photos).

Question 19

What was the aim in Baddeley’s research into coding?

Answer 19

To investigate how we code information in our STM and LTM.

Question 20

Outline the procedure of Baddeley’s research into coding of STM

Answer 20

Showed participants lists of words in 4 categories
1. Acoustically similar (cat, sat, mat, bat)
2. Acoustically dissimilar (tree, house, flour)
3. Semantically similar (kip, doze, nap, sleep)
4. Semantically dissimilar (cake, book, plane)
Immediately after each presentation, participants were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER.

Question 21

What were the findings of Baddeley’s research into coding of STM?

Answer 21

More mistakes made on the acoustically similar list.

Question 22

What were the conclusions made from Baddeley’s research into coding of STM?

Answer 22

Suggests STM mainly codes information acoustically.

Question 23

Outline the procedure of Baddeley’s research into coding of LTM

Answer 23

Showed participants lists of words in 4 categories
1. Acoustically similar (cat, sat, mat, bat)
2. Acoustically dissimilar (tree, house, flour)
3. Semantically similar (kip, doze, nap, sleep)
4. Semantically dissimilar (cake, book, plane)
20 minutes after each presentation, participants were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER.

Question 24

What were the findings of Baddeley’s research into coding of LTM?

Answer 24

More mistakes made on the semantically similar list.

Question 25

What were the conclusions made from Baddeley’s research into coding of LTM?

Answer 25

Suggests LTM mainly codes information semantically.

Question 26

What was the aim of Miller’s research into the capacity of the STM?

Answer 26

To investigate the capacity of the STM

Question 27

Outline the procedure of Miller’s research into the capacity of the STM

Answer 27

He used “the digit span technique“. Participants were given strings of unrelated digits (e.g. do not have a pattern, - 2,4,6,8. Are not repeated - 11111, do not make up common acronyms – LOL) that increased by one digit every time. The participant’s digit span was measured until the point where they could no longer recall the digits in the correct sequence.

Question 28

What were the findings of Miller’s research into the capacity of the STM?

Answer 28

Participants could recall 5-9 (7 + or – 2) items, more could be recalled if items were ‘chunked’. E.g. participants can remember 5 words just as well as 5 letters.

Question 29

What was the conclusion made from Miller’s research into the capacity of the STM?

Answer 29

Capacity of STM is limited (7 + or – 2 items). Our digit span can be increased by putting several items into a meaningful chunk.

Question 30

What was the aim of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of the STM?

Answer 30

To investigate the duration of the STM

Question 31

Outline the procedure of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of the STM?

Answer 31

Participants were briefly presented with a consonant trigram (HDF) to remember. They were then given a three digit number and asked to count backwards from this number to prevent rehearsal. They were stopped at different intervals (3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds) and asked to recall the consonant trigram.

Question 32

What was the finding of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of the STM?

Answer 32

After 3 seconds only 80% recalled the trigram correctly. After 18 seconds fewer than 10% recalled correctly.

Question 33

What was the conclusion made from Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of the STM?

Answer 33

Information in the STM lasts 18 – 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.

Question 34

What was the sample of Peterson and Peterson’s research into the duration of the STM?

Answer 34

24

Question 35

What was the aim of Bahrick’s research into the duration of the LTM?

Answer 35

To investigate the duration of the LTM

Question 36

Outline the procedure of Bahrick’s research into the duration of the LTM?

Answer 36

Bahrick tested 392 American high school graduates aged between 17 and 74 on their memory of their former classmates. In Condition 1 they had to recall the names of classmates using a photo yearbook, in condition 2 they had to recall the names of their class with no photo cue.

Question 37

What was the finding of Bahrick’s research into the duration of the LTM?

Answer 37

In condition one, 70% of participants recalled accurately after 48 years.
In condition two, 30% of participants

Question 38

AO3: Multi Store Model studies
Mundane realism

Answer 38

The research into (duration in the STM) lacks mundane realism,
as the task of (recalling consonant trigrams) is artificial.
Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings (that information lasts 18-30 seconds) to real life examples of the duration of STM, as the research does not reflect most real life memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
Thus lowering the external validity of the research into (the duration of STM).
Think further: However, some would argue that we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things such as groups of digits (phone numbers) or groups of letters (postcodes), therefore, although the task is artificial, it does have some relevance to everyday life.

Question 39

AO3: Multi Store Model studies
High control over extraneous variables

Answer 39

The research into (coding of the LTM) has high control over extraneous variables as it was carried out in a controlled setting (lab), for example (the lists of words would be matched on their difficulty and each words would be shown to participants for the same amount of time). This means that we are more likely to establish cause and effect between the IV (the list of words) and the DV (accurate recall). Therefore increasing the internal validity of the research into (the coding of the LTM).

Question 40

AO3: Multi Store Model studies
High in reliability

Answer 40

Research into the (capacity of STM) is praised for having high reliability. This is because the research was carried out in a controlled environment (lab), therefore the research could be repeated in the same conditions (for example, the same standardised instructions, the same digits given to participants and shown for the same amount of time), in order to check for consistent results in to (the capacity of STM).

Question 41

AO3: Bahrick
High mundane realism

Answer 41

Bahrick’s research into duration in the LTM is high in mundane realism, as the research assessed real life memories of the individual’s old classmates. This is a strength because it is something you might find yourself doing in everyday life, for example, searching for an old friend on social media. Therefore it may be easier to generalise the research findings of the duration of LTM to other real life applications, increasing the external validity of the research in to the duration of LTM.

Question 42

AO3: Bahrick
Low control over extraneous variables

Answer 42

However, critics may argue that the research into duration of LTM has low control over extraneous variables, as the research did not take place in a controlled environment. For example, how much contact the participants had with classmates after leaving school was not controlled. Therefore, cause and effect cannot be clearly established between the IV (length of time passed) and the DV (accurate recall of classmates) so firm conclusions cannot be drawn on the duration of LTM, reducing the internal validity of the research findings.

Question 43

Outline the Multi store Model of memory (AO1 for any essay)

Answer 43

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through memory. It is a structural model stating that Sensory, Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM) are separate unitary stores, and that information flows through the system in a linear way.

A stimulus from the environment (for example the sound of someone’s name) will pass in to the sensory register. This part of memory has several stores (one for each of the five senses) and coding in each store is modality specific. The two main stores are echoic (sound/auditory information – coded acoustically) and iconic (visual information – coded visually).

• Information in the sensory register has a duration of less than a second. The capacity of the sensory register is high.
• Information passes from the sensory register to the STM only if attention is paid to it. If it is not being paid attention to, the information decays
• STM is a limited capacity store, the capacity of information is 5-9 items (Miller’s Magic Number). Information in the STM is coded acoustically and the duration of information is 18-30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.
• If maintenance rehearsal occurs (repeating the information to ourselves) it can increase the length of time the information is held in STM. If the information is rehearsed enough, it will pass to the LTM.
• LTM is a potentially permanent store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Psychologists believe that the capacity is potentially unlimited and that information can last a lifetime in the LTM. The LTM codes information semantically.

Question 44

AO3: Multi store Model of memory
Different Unitary stores

Answer 44

A strength of the multi-store model of memory is that it is supported by research studies that show that STM and LTM are different unitary stores. For example, Baddeley found that participants mixed up words that sound similar when using their STM but mixed up words that have similar meanings when using their LTM. This study clearly suggests that coding in STM is acoustic and coding in LTM is semantic. This supports the multi-store model of memory BECAUSE it supports the view that the STM and LTM are separate stores.

Question 45

AO3: Multi store Model of memory
Case study of Clive wearing and CA

Answer 45

Further research to support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory
comes from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which he
cannot transfer information from his STM to his LTM, this is evident as when his wife
re-enters the room after leaving just seconds before, he greets her as if it is the first
time he has seen her in years. This supports the multi-store model of memory
BECAUSE it shows that STM and LTM are separate stores and that information must
flow through in a linear way, first to STM then LTM.

Discussion: However, critics would argue that the case study to support the MSM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, Clive Wearing, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their memory may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the multistore model of memory.

Question 46

AO3: Multi store Model of memory
Too simplistic

Answer 46

Moreover, it is suggested that the MSM could be too simplistic in stating that STM and LTM are unitary stores. For example, (Shallice and Warrington’s) research in to the STM conducted on patient KF, who suffered from amnesia, found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. This suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual and one to process auditory information, casting doubt on the theories assumption that the STM is unitary.

Question 47

What are the 3 types of Long term Memory?

Answer 47

1. Procedural
2. Episodic
3. Semantic

Question 48

Outline Procedural memory

Answer 48

‘Knowing how’
Procedural memory is a part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills, such as riding a bike.
Procedural memories are non-declarative, they do not involve conscious thought (i.e. it’s unconscious - automatic)
The area of the brain responsible for procedural long-term memories is the Cerebellum and Motor Cortex.

Question 49

Outline Semantic memory

Answer 49

‘Knowing that’
Semantic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing knowledge about the world. For example, knowledge about the meaning of words, such as ‘love’, as well as general knowledge such as facts i.e. London is the capital of England.
Semantic memories are declarative, they do not involve conscious thought (i.e. not automatic – have to think about them)
Semantic memories are not ‘time stamped’ – we do not usually remember when and where we first learned/coded the information.
The brain area responsible for semantic long-term memories is the Temporal Lobe.

Question 50

Outline Episodic memory

Answer 50

Episodic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives at a specific time, for example our first day of school.
Episodic memories involve conscious thought and they are declarative.
Episodic memories are ‘time stamped’ – we remember when and where we coded/learned these memories.
The brain area responsible for episodic long-term memories is the Hippocampus.

Question 51

AO3: Types of Long term memory
Neuroimaging evidence

Answer 51

A strength of the different types of long term memory is that there is neuroimaging evidence to support the notion that there are different types of LTM. For example, participants were asked to perform various memory tasks whilst their brains were scanned using a PET scanner. It was found that episodic memories were associated with the hippocampus, whereas procedural memory was associated with the cerebellum and motor cortex. Therefore, this supports the different types of LTM BECAUSE the three different types of LTM were found in different areas of the brain, indicating that they are separate.

Question 52

AO3: Types of Long term memory
Scientific methods

Answer 52

Moreover, the research into the different types of LTM, such as that described above, can be praised as it uses scientific methods. Objective and empirical techniques such as brain scans, which are used in order to identify the different parts of the brain that become active when completing different types of LTM tasks, for example the cerebellum and motor cortex being active when carrying a procedural task. Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the research into types of long term memory, thus raising Psychology’s scientific status.

Question 53

AO3: Types of Long term memory
Case study of Clive Wearing and CA

Answer 53

To further evaluate the different types of long term memory, it has real life
evidence from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which
his episodic memory was damaged as he could not remember some events
from his past, for example his musical education. However, Clive’s procedural
memory was still working as he can remember how to play the piano. Therefore if only certain areas of his LTM are damaged it supports that there are different types of long term memory.
THINK FURTHER: Moreover, Clive Wearing’s amnesia was caused by a virus that damaged his hippocampus, further supporting the idea that the episodic memory is located in this area of the brain.

However, this research to support can be criticised as it has low population validity. This is because the research was a case study, using only Clive as a participant who suffers from an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings of the different types of LTM to the wider population as their LTM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the different types of LTM.

Question 54

What are the parts that make up the Working Memory Model of memory

Answer 54

Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Episodic Buffer

Question 55

How does the Central Executive code?

Answer 55

Codes any type of info

Question 56

How does the Phonological loop code?

Answer 56

Acoustically

Question 57

How does the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad code?

Answer 57

Visually

Question 58

How does the Epoisodic Buffer code?

Answer 58

Codes any type of info

Question 59

What does the Phonological loop break down into?

Answer 59

Phonological Store (inner ear)
Articulatory Loop (inner voice)

Question 60

Which 2 researchers proposed the Working Memory Model

Answer 60

Baddeley and Hitch

Question 61

Outline the Central Executive

Answer 61

The central executive is an attentional process that monitors incoming data and DECIDES what needs to be done and when and DELEGATES tasks accordingly to the slave systems, it can code any type of information.
The central executive keeps any eye on what is happening in the slave systems and takes over the most DEMANDING task where necessary. Any task that is new/requires concentration (attention) will overload the central executive as it has a very limited capacity.

Question 62

Outline the Phonological Loop

Answer 62

AUDITORY information is passed from the CE to the phonological loop.
Baddeley further subdivided the PL into 2 parts;
THE PHONOLOGICAL STORE – which stores the words we hear, like an inner ear.
THE ARTICULATORY LOOP – silently repeats/rehearses words that are seen or heard, to keep them in memory, like an inner voice. (maintenance rehearsal)
The PL has a LIMITED CAPACITY and CODES ACCOUSTICALLY

Question 63

Outline the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Answer 63

VISUAL information is passed from the CE to the VSS, like an inner eye.
It is responsible for setting up mental images and is what you use if you have to plan a spatial task, e.g. GIVING DIRECTIONS. It TEMPORARILY stores VISUAL (what things look like) and SPATIAL (the physical relationship between things) information.
Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:
The visual cache – which stores visual data.
The inner scribe – which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
The VSS has a LIMITED CAPACITY (3-4 objects) and CODES VISUALLY

Question 64

Outline the Episodic Buffer

Answer 64

This is a general store, later added by Baddeley and Hitch in 2000. The EB collects and combines information from the CE, PL and VSS to record an event (episode). The EB transfers information to the LTM and is used to retrieve information from the LTM to the STM.
** The EB has a LIMITED CAPACITY (4 chunks) and can CODE ANY TYPE of information**

Question 65

AO3: Working Memory Model
Shallice and Warrington

Answer 65

Research to support the WMM was conducted by Shallice and Warrington (1970) on patient KF, who suffered with amnesia. They found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could read the digits himself. This supports the WMM BECAUSE it suggests that there must be different stores within the STM, one to process visual information (VSS) and one to process auditory information (PL), as the PL was damaged but the VVS intact.

However, critics would argue that the case study to support the WMM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, patient KF, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as their STM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the working memory model of memory.

Question 66

AO3: Working Memory Model
Dual Task Performance

Answer 66

Studies of dual task performance support the notion that there are separate components within the STM and that they have a limited capacity. For example, Baddeley et al (1975) found that participants had more difficulty when performing two visual tasks at the same time (using a pointer to track a light moving around a screen and imagining a capital letter ‘F’ and mentally moving the letter) than when performing one of the visual tasks alone or one of the visual tasks with a verbal task (such as saying ‘the’ repeatedly). This supports the WMM assumptions BECAUSE it suggests that both visual tasks are competing for limited capacity of the same slave system (VSS) whereas when doing a verbal and visual task simultaneously, they are delegated to separate slave systems (VSS and PL) and performance is not reduced as there is no competition for capacity. Therefore, the credibility of the WMM as a model of memory is increased.

Question 67

AO3: Working Memory Model
Lack of Clarity

Answer 67

Despite the empirical research to support the WMM, opponents argue that much of this research is conducted on the slave systems such as the PL and VSS and that there is a lack of clarity over the role of the central executive. The CE is said to be a single component of ‘attention’ that delegates to slave systems, however some psychologists suggest that the central executive may have several components within it. Therefore, this casts doubt on the WMM as an explanation of STM.

Question 68

What are the 2 types of forgetting?

Answer 68

1. Interference theory
2. Retrieval Failure due to absence of cues

Question 69

What are the 2 types of interferences in the interference theory?

Answer 69

1. Proactive interference
2. Retroactive interference

Question 70

What are the 3 types of Retrieval failures due to absence of cues?

Answer 70

1. Context dependent forgetting
2. State dependent forgetting

Question 71

What is the Interference Theory?

Answer 71

Interference theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to two lots of information, coded at different times becoming confused in the LTM, one memory disrupts the ability to recall another memory.
This is most likely to occur when the information is similar.

There are two types of interference;
Proactive
Retroactive

Question 72

What is Proactive Interference?

Answer 72

In proactive interference, forgetting occurs when past information stored disrupts the recall of new/recent information stored, for example the memory of an old phone number means you FORGET your new phone number.

Question 73

What is Retroactive Interference?

Answer 73

In retroactive interference, forgetting occurs when recent information stored disrupts the recall of past information stored, for example the memory of new address means you FORGET your previous address

Question 74

AO3: Interference Theory
McGeoch and McDonald

Answer 74

Research to support interference theory as an explanation for forgetting was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald (1931), who gave participants a list of 10 words to learn (List A). Participants had to learn this list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. Participants then had to learn a second list of words (List B) (this is the interference). Participants were then asked to recall List A. It was found that if List B was a list of similar meaning words (synonyms) to List A recall was poor (12%), however, if the words in List B were different to List A recall was higher (26%). This supports the interference theory as an explanation for forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that interference is strongest the more similar the items are, which is what the theory predicts.

Question 75

AO3: Interference Theory
High in reliability

Answer 75

A strength of interference as an explanation for forgetting is that much of the research, such as McGeoch and McDonald is high in reliability. It is conducted in a controlled, lab setting and therefore can be repeated in the same conditions for example give each participant the same time to learn the wordlist in order to gain consistent results into the effects of interference on forgetting. Think Further: Interference is one of the most consistently demonstrated findings in the whole of Psychology, with most studies showing that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways that we forget information in the LTM. This therefore strengthens the support the research provides for interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.

Question 76

AO3: Interference Theory
Lacks Mundane realism

Answer 76

However, critics would argue that there is a much greater chance of interference demonstrated in research studies than in real life situations, this is due to the fact that the research lacks mundane realism. Artificial tasks such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life examples of forgetting, as the research does not reflect what we would try to remember in everyday life such as birthdays, people’s faces, the ingredients to make a cake etc., maybe these memories are less likely to be contaminated by interference as they are more meaningful to us. Thus limiting the support the research provides for interference as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 77

What is Retrieval failure due to Absence of Cues?

Answer 77

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues suggests that forgetting occurs when information is still in the LTM, but can’t be accessed due to a lack of memory cues.
2 types are:
Context dependent forgetting
State dependent forgetting

Question 78

Outline Context dependent forgetting

Answer 78

One type of retrieval failure is context dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues to trigger recall because the environment is different at recall to when the information was coded. For example, a person may forget information when sitting an exam in a different classroom which they learned the information.

Question 79

Outline State dependent forgetting

Answer 79

Another type of retrieval failure is state dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of internal cues to trigger recall because a person’s internal physical and/or emotional state is different at recall to when the information was coded. For example, a person may forget a dance routine on stage because when they learned the routine they may have been calm, but on stage they are anxious.

Question 80

AO3: Retrieval Failure due to Absence of Cues
Godden and Baddeley

Answer 80

Research to support context-dependent forgetting was conducted by Godden & Baddeley (1975). Scuba divers were given a list of words to learn either on land or under water. They were then asked to recall the list in either the same setting they learned, or the opposite. It was found that the participants were more likely to forget the words (40% less accuracy) if tested in the opposite location to where they had learned the words. This gives support to context dependent forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that when there is a lack of external memory cues (different environment), forgetting is more likely.

Question 81

AO3: Retrieval Failure due to Absence of Cues
Goodwin et al

Answer 81

Research to support state-dependent forgetting was conducted by Goodwin et al (1969). Male volunteers were asked to learn a list of words when either drunk or sober. They were then asked to recall the words, 24 hours later, in either same state or opposite state. It was found that participants were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite state to which they had learned the words. This gives support to state dependent forgetting BECAUSE it demonstrates that when there is a lack of internal memory cues (different physical/emotional state), forgetting is more likely.

Question 82

AO3: Retrieval Failure due to Absence of Cues
Lacks Mundane realism

Answer 82

However, it could be argued that the research into retrieval failure due to an absence of cues, such as those described above lacks mundane realism. This is because artificial tasks, such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to every day cases of forgetting, as in real life we may be learning much more complex information, such as psychological theories, that may not be as easily accessed with an internal or external cue. Therefore, reducing the external validity of the research and questioning retrieval failure due to an absence of cues as an explanation for forgetting.

Question 83

What are the 2 types of Factors affecting Eyewitness Testimony?

Answer 83

1. Misleading information
   2 Anxiety

Question 84

What are the 2 types of misleading information

Answer 84

1. Leading questions
2. Post Event Discussion

Question 85

Who investigated leading questions as a Factor Affecting Eyewitness Testimony

Answer 85

Loftus and Palmer

Question 86

What was the aim of Loftus and Palmer’s research into leading questions?

Answer 86

To investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect participants’ memory of an event.

Question 87

What was the method used by Loftus and Palmer’s when investigating leading questions

Answer 87

Lab

Question 88

What was the sample of Loftus and Palmer’s research into leading questions?

Answer 88

45 American students (split into 5 groups of 9)

Question 89

Outline the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s research into leading questions

Answer 89

Participants were shown a video of a car crash and each group was asked one of 5 critical questions: (IV)
“About how fast were the cars travelling when they **** each other?”
Smashed, hit, collided, bumped or contacted.
Loftus and Palmer measured participants’ speed estimates (DV)

Question 90

What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s research into leading questions?

Answer 90

They found participants guessed a higher mean speed when they had ‘smashed’ (40.8mph) compared to contacted (31.8mph).

Question 91

What was the conclusion that was made from Loftus and Palmer’s research into leading questions?

Answer 91

The phrasing of a question can influence a participant’s memory of an event.

Question 92

AO3: Leading Questions
Practical Applications

Answer 92

A strength of the research into the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications; the notion that leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT has led to improvements in the legal system. For example, police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing witnesses, and not use leading questions. Therefore, the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT is an important part of applied psychology BECAUSE it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improve the lives of people affected by crime. THINK FURTHER: Moreover, the research could have a positive impact on the economy; if witness statements are more accurate this could lead to a quicker conviction of the correct perpetrator, meaning less tax payers’ money is spent on multiple police interviews or re-trials, and this money could be used elsewhere to benefit society

Question 93

AO3: Leading Questions
Lacks Mundane Realism

Answer 93

However, one potential criticism of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because it involved an artificial task of watching a video of a car crash. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise findings to real life cases of how leading questions can affect the accuracy of EWT as the video may have less of an emotional impact on the participant than witnessing a real car crash. THINK FURTHER: Studies have shown that anxiety can also affect how accurate an EWT is. Therefore limiting the external validity of the research in to leading questions as a factor affecting EWT.

Question 94

AO3: Leading Questions
Lacks Ecological Validity

Answer 94

Moreover, also questioning the external validity of the research is the issue that the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT also often lacks ecological validity. Loftus and Palmer conducted their research in an artificial environment (laboratory). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT BECAUSE in real life an individual may be less influenced by the leading question due to the fact that there may be consequences of their answer, (the conviction of a person) unlike in the artificial lab setting. Again, this lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 95

Define Post Event Discussion

Answer 95

When witnesses of an event (which can be a crime) discuss it with one another (post event discussion) their EWT may become contaminated. This is because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own

Question 96

AO3: Post Event Discussion
Practical Application

Answer 96

A strength of the research into the effects of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications; the notion that post event discussion can affect the accuracy of EWT has led to improvements in the legal system. For example, efforts are made to make sure witnesses do not discuss events with one another to reduce contamination of their memories. Therefore, the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT is an important part of applied psychology BECAUSE it could lead to more accurate testimonies and improve the lives of people affected by crime. THINK FURTHER: Moreover, the research could have a positive impact on the economy; if witness statements are more accurate this could lead to a quicker conviction of the correct perpetrator, meaning less tax payers’ money is spent on multiple police interviews or re-trials, and this money could be used elsewhere to benefit society.

Question 97

AO3: Post Event Discussion
Lacks Mundane Realism

Answer 97

However, one potential criticism of the research into the effects of post event discussion on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because it involved an artificial task of watching a video of a crime. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise findings to real life cases of how post event discussion can affect the accuracy of EWT as the video may have less of an emotional impact on the participant than witnessing a real crime. THINK FURTHER: Studies have shown that anxiety can also affect how accurate an EWT is. Therefore limiting the external validity of the research in to post event discussion as a factor affecting EWT.

Question 98

AO3: Post Event Discussion
Lacks Ecological validity

Answer 98

 Moreover, also questioning the external validity of the research is the issue that the research in to how leading questions affect the accuracy of EWT also often lacks ecological validity. Gabbert et al conducted their research in an artificial environment (laboratory). Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life cases of how post event discussion affects the accuracy of EWT BECAUSE in real life an individual may be less influenced by the post event discussion due to the fact that there may be consequences of their EWT, (the conviction of a person) unlike in the artificial lab setting. Again, this lowers the external validity of the research into the effects of post event discussion on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 99

Who conducted research into the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Answer 99

Johnson and Scott

Question 100

What was the aim of Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 100

To investigate the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 101

Outline the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s study

Answer 101

• Participants were placed in one of two conditions either a high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition or low anxiety condition. (IV)
• Participants were told to wait outside a room before the experiment began.
• In the high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition participants heard an argument and the sound of breaking glass from within the room, and a man walked out of the room carrying a knife covered with blood.
• The low anxiety condition heard the argument from within the room before a man walked out with grease on their hands and a pen.
• Participants then had to identify the person who left the room from 50 photographs.

Question 102

What were the findings of Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 102

Found 49% accuracy for the low anxiety condition compared to 33% in the high anxiety ‘weapon focus’ condition.

Question 103

What was the conclusion made from Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 103

Anxiety caused ‘weapon focus’ as the witness concentrates on the weapon not the person because of the fear of the situation, reducing accuracy of recall.

Question 104

What was the method used in Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 104

Lab

Question 105

AO3: Anxiety
Pickel

Answer 105

A limitation of Johnson and Scott’s research into how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT is that it is not truly measuring anxiety. The reason participants focused on the weapon may be because they were surprised at what they saw rather than scared. Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be high anxiety but low usualness). EWT accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and handgun). This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to surprise rather than anxiety/threat and therefore does not explain the effect of anxiety on EWT.

Question 106

AO3: Anxiety
Christianson and Hubinette

Answer 106

Research conducted into a real life example of the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT by Christianson and Hubinette contradicts Johnson and Scott’s findings. They interviewed 58 real life witnesses of a bank robbery. Some had been directly threatened (bank teller- high anxiety) and others were bystanders (customers – low anxiety). It was found that those who had been directly threatened had significantly better memories than the bystanders. Therefore, contradicting the idea that anxiety reduces the accuracy of EWT, and demonstrating that anxiety can in fact increase the accuracy of EWT.

Question 107

AO3: Anxiety
Counter argument Christianson and Hubinette

Answer 107

However, a criticism of Christianson and Hubinette’s research is that they interviewed their participants several months after the event (four to 15 months). The researchers therefore had no control over what happened to their participants in the intervening time. For example, participants who witnessed the crime may have spoken to each other about the event (post-event discussion). The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these other factors, making it impossible to assess the effects of anxiety on eye witness testimony by the time the participants were interviewed. Therefore, this reduces the validity of Christianson and Hubinette’s findings on the impact of anxiety on EWT.

Question 108

How do we improve eyewitness testimony?

Answer 108

Cognitive Interview

Question 109

What are the techniques of Cognitive Interview?

Answer 109

Recall everything
Context Reinstatement
Recall in reverse
Recall from changed Perspective

Question 110

Outline Recall Everything

Answer 110

The witness is asked to report all details of the event even if it seems trivial, this may improve the accuracy of EWT because it might act as a trigger to a memory.

Question 111

Outline Context Reinstatement

Answer 111

The witness is asked to mentally place themselves back at the scene of the event and imagine the environment, such as the weather and what they could see, and their emotions. This could improve the accuracy of EWT because it may act as a trigger to a memory (context/state reinstatement).

Question 112

Outline Recall in Reverse

Answer 112

The witness is asked to report what happened in a different chronological order, for example from the end of the crime to the start. This is said to improve the accuracy of EWT as it may prevent witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what actually happened. Moreover, it also prevents dishonesty, as it is harder to lie when having to reverse a story.

Question 113

Outline Recall from Changed Perspective

Answer 113

The witness is asked to recall the incident from another person’s perspective who witnessed the crime e.g. another witness or the perpetrator. This is said to improve the accuracy of EWT as it may prevent witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what actually happened.

Question 114

AO3: Cognitive Interview
Koehnken et al

Answer 114

Research to support the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT was conducted by Koehnken et al. They combined data from 55 studies comparing the cognitive interview with the standard police interview. The cognitive interview gave an average 41% increase in accurate information compared with the standard interview. Only four studies in the analysis showed no difference between the types of studies. This supports that the cognitive interview is an effective technique BECAUSE it helps witnesses recall information that is stored in memory but not immediately accessible.

Question 115

AO3: Cognitive Interview
Discussion: Koehnken et al

Answer 115

However, Koehnken et al (1999) also suggests that although more accurate information is remembered, often more incorrect items are also recalled, with an increase of incorrect information reported in a cognitive interview compared to a standard interview. These are known as false positives. This is a weakness when using the cognitive interview as despite seeming like more information has been collected, the information could be incorrect, suggesting that cognitive interviews may sacrifice quality of EWT in favour of quantity. Therefore, reducing the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in improving the accuracy of EWT.

Question 116

AO3: Cognitive Interview