memory

Question 1

Outline “coding”

Answer 1

• refers to the “format” of the information which is stored in each memory store

acoustic - STM
semantic - LTM

Question 2

Outline “ duration”

Answer 2

-length of time in which information can be stored in each memory store

18-20 seconds STM
potentially forever LTM

Question 3

Outline “capacity”

Answer 3

-refers to the volume of information that can be stored in each memory store
7+-2 items STM
unlimited capacity LTM

Question 4

Outline research for coding of STM

Answer 4

Baddley et al
- found that participants made the most mistakes when asked to recall acoustically similar words when asked to immediately recall the list of words

Question 5

Outline research for duration of STM

Answer 5

Peterson et al
- participants were exposed to 3 letter trigrams , without any meaning to avoid semantic rehearsal

-counted backwards for a few seconds to avoid maintenance rehearsal

-after 18 seconds recall was less than 10%

Question 6

Outline research into capaciity for STM

Answer 6

Jacobs et al 1887
- recall lists of numbers and letters in order
- Jacobs found that the capacity for letters was around 7 items and 9 for numbers

Miller et al
-presdisposed to this number (e.g 7 days a week)
-do this through the process of chunking : grouping letters and numbers

Question 7

Outline research into duration of LTM

Answer 7

Bahrick et al 1975
- found that when participants were asked to recall names of students within their yearbook , recall was :
- 90%** after 15 years
-80*% for names after 48 years

Question 8

Outline research into the capacity of LTM

Answer 8

wagnaar et al
-kept diary over course of 6 years recording 2.5k events
-tested himself on the events and found a 75% recall after one year and 45% recall after 7 years
-capacity is potentially limitless

Question 9

Outline research into the coding of LTM

Answer 9

Baddley et al
- Recall was worst for semantically similar words when asked to recall the list 20 minutes after learning
-Difficult to recall because they were all in the same store

Question 10

Outline a limitation of research into STM capacity

Answer 10

• methodological issues associated with jacobs et al research
• lack of standardisation and appreciation of scientific methods

-e.g current labratory studies produce highly reliable data through the controlling and removing of extraneous variables

Question 11

Evaluate a strength of Bahrick et al’s research

Answer 11

• use of meaningful stimuli (photobooks)

-produces methology which is high in mudane realism : stimuli reflecting information which we would often to recall in our day to day lives : information with personal and meaningful value

• findings can be high ecological validity and can be generalised to real life scenarios

Question 12

Evaluate a limitation of Miller and Peterson’s study

Answer 12

• methodology with low mudane realism
• producing findings with low ecological validity
• due to use of artificial stimuli with no personal meaning to participants : does not accurately reflect everyday learning experiences

-limits generalisability of such findings

Question 13

Limitation of miller’s research into STM

Answer 13

• may have over- exaggerated the capacity of STM
• 1956

-capacity more similar to 4 chunks as opposed to original 5-9 limit

-This may reflect the outdated methodologies adopted by Miller and specifically, the lack of control over confounding variables which may have contributed to this inaccurate estimate.

Question 14

What is the multi-store modal?

Answer 14

Shiffron and Atkinson

• represents how memory is stored and transferred between different stores and how it is retrieved and forgotten
• unidirectional flow : all information processed in one direction , cannot bypass a store

Question 15

Outline the sensory register in the multi-store modal

Answer 15

• contains one substore for each 5 senses :
  echoic store : auditory information
  ionic store : visual information

-has a hug capacity (due to info from all 5 senses)
- duration of less than a second
-information only passes from sensory register to STM when we pay attention to it
-located frontal cortex

Question 16

Outline the STM in the multi-store modal

Answer 16

• acoustically encoded (baddeley)
  -duration of 18-30 seconds (peterson)
  -capacity of 7+/-2 items (Miller)

maintenance rehearsal - occurs when we repeat information to ourselves , allowing information to be kept in STM

prolonged maintenance rehearsal- allows information to pass to the LTM
-however lack of rehearsal leads to forgetting

Question 17

Outline LTM in the multi-store modal

Answer 17

• semantically encoded (baddeley)
  -unlimited capacity
  -very long duration , potentially unlimited (over 46 years as found by bahrick et al)
• to remember information retrieval must occur : when information is passed back into STM and will continue to pass through the maintenance loop

Question 18

what is a strength of the multi-store modal

Answer 18

• MSM acknowledges the qualitative differences between STM and LTM by representing them as separate stores

-for example STM is encoded acoustically , whilst LTM is coded semantically and has a much longer duration

-MSM portrays accurate view of differences between 2 memory (supported by baddeley and Miller)

Question 19

Evaluate a weakness of multi-store model (tulving)

Answer 19

• There are different types of LTM as proposed by Tulving : procedural , semantic and episodic

-MSM does not represent this : sees LTM as a single unitary store : also does not present that some types of LTM can be retrieved unconsciously (procedural) and others consciously (semantic)

• LTM is over-simplified
  not reflected in the process of info consciously transferred to STM due to process of retrieval

Question 21

Evaluate a weakness of multi-store model (elaborative rehearsal )

Answer 21

craik and watkin 1973
— The MSM suggests that the amount of maintenance rehearsal determines the likelihood that the information will pass into the LTM, whereas a study craik and watkin 1973 suggest that it is the type of rehearsal which is more important.

They suggest that elaborative rehearsal, instead of prolonged rehearsal, is needed to transfer information from the STM into the LTM, by making links with existing knowledge.

Question 22

Evaluate a weakness of multi-store model (case study )

Answer 22

— The MSM incorrectly represents STM as a single, unitary store.

For example, Shallice and Warrington found that their patient KF with a diagnosed clinical disorder called amnesia had poor STM recall for auditory stimuli, but increasingly accurate recall for visual stimuli.

This, alongside KF being able to differentiate and recall both verbal and non-verbal sounds, suggests that there may be multiple types of STM.

Question 23

Episodic memory in LTM

Answer 23

-describe memories with personal meaning to us

-must be able to recall details of event such as when and where these events occurred alongside associated people
- E.G : memory of a wedding / first timee meeting a partner
-declarative
- brain scan evidence : prefrontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) and then stored across all areas of the brain : recall in hippocampus

Question 24

Semantic memories in LTM

Answer 24

• describe memories of the world and the associated knowledge that accumulate our lives
• E.G an understanding of what words themes and concepts mean : for example it is the ability to be able to use info related to one concept to help us with another (and facts ab ourselves)
  -declarative
  -episodic memories become semantic over time
  -no. of areas in the brain e.g perirhinal cortex

Question 25

Procedural memories in LTM

Answer 25

• describe our memories of ‘learned skills’, such as swimming or driving.
• unconscious and non-declarative
  -many parts of brain e.g cerebellum

Question 26

Strength of Tulving’s LTM (peterson et al)

Answer 26

Petersen et al. demonstrated that semantic memories were recalled from the temporal lobe , whilst episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.

This supports not only the idea that there are different types of LTM, but shows that they each have a different neurological basis because they are recalled from different parts of the brain.

Question 27

Strength of Tulving’s LTM (practical application)

Answer 27

+ There is a practical application in being able to differentiate between different types of LTM.

For example, Belleville et al notes that mild cognitive impairments most commonly affect episodic memories and so an increased understanding of episodic memory, alongside the differences between different types of LTM, may lead to improved, increasingly targeted treatments for mild cognitive impairments.

Question 28

limitation of Tulvings LTM

Answer 28

+ cohen and squire drew a distinction between declarative and non declarative
argued episodic and semantic memories are stored together in one LTM store called declarative memory

• declarative memories must be recalleed consciously (e.g episodic and semantic)
• whilst non declarative unconsciously (procedural)
  -this is different classification system used by Tulving > depiction of LTM not entirely accurate

Question 29

strength of tulving LTM model (case studies)

Answer 29

• cases of HM and clive wearing: one type of LTM can be impaired (episodic) , other types of LTM will be unaffected (procedural and episodic)

-e.g clive wearing : skillfully play the piano (procedural) and understand concept of music (semantic)
- but unable to remember his wife visiting him 5 minutes previously (episodic) > strong support for the idea that different areas of the brain are involved in diiff types of LTM (classification of diff types of LTM as seperate)

Question 30

Outline the working memory model

Answer 30

Baddeley and Hitch
- short term memory model
-STM must be more complex than just a single unitary store
-active processor
-holding multiple pieces of information

Question 31

Outline the central executive

Answer 31

• described as an ‘attentional process’

-with a very limited processing capacity,
- role is to allocate tasks to the 3 slave systems (described above).

• Can become overloaded if too capacity of attention of central executive is ful

Question 32

Outline the phonological loop

Answer 32

-processes auditory information
-allows for maintenance rehearsal by being made up of thee :

• articulatory process : (inner voice) needed information , stores words you hear and keeps in mind by repetition (verbal rehearsal loop)
• phonological store (primary acoustic store):(inner ear) uneeded information , such as recently heard things
  stores the words you hear

-limited capacity of only 2 second duration
-confusion can occur between similar sounding words
-limited capacity temporary storage system

holds acoustic information according to tone, volume, pitch

Question 33

Outline the episodic buffer in WMM

Answer 33

integrates all types of data processed by the other stores (e.g. auditory, visual,
spatial)

described as the storage component of the central executive

crucial for linking STM to LTM.

Question 34

Outline the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 34

• combines visual and spatial information of STM
• e.g when recalling architecture of a famous landmark
• the VSS is divided into the

inner scribe : active process , allows to visualise the relationship between objects and rehearse what u have just seen

visual cache : passive store of form and colour of objects
-capacity : can hold 3–4 items

Question 35

Limitation of the WMM ( ce vague)

Answer 35

— The central executive has not been precisely defined.

For example, the term ‘process’ is vague, and the central executive may be made up of several sub-components (argued that they are : planning,attention and response inhibition) and even be part of a larger component itself in working memory.

This lack of a comprehensive explanation for each component of WMM draws doubts about the accuracy of its depiction of working memory.

Question 36

Limitation of WMM ( Falsifiability)

Answer 36

Lacks Falsifiability: The central executive has been criticised by other psychologists as a vague concept without full explanation of its function and is quite difficult to test (not fully falsifiable) as none of the results could have disproved its existence.

Baddeley admits that the concept needs development, and included the episodic buffer as part of this development.

Question 37

Strength of WMM (case studies)

Answer 37

Shallice and warrington
- study of patient KF
- studies find: KF had very poor STM recall for auditory stimuli , but increased STM recall for visual stimuli
- suggests components of memory which process auditory and visual are seperate

• this is described by the WMM : Phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad

counterpoint : case study: difficult to establish a cause and effect because rarely know what the patient was like befor and after brain damage

Question 38

strength of WMM (dual-task)

Answer 38

Gathercole and Baddeley
- dual task performance
-individuals must undertake a visual and verbal task simultaneously or a visual and visual task
- individuals who performed 2 visual tasks simultaneously showed results of decreased performance compared to individuals that carried out visual and verbal tasks together

• supports the idea that verbal and visual information are in separate stores within the working memory model , visual & visual tasks were competing for the same store
  ALSO supports that central excecutive has a limiting processing capacity and that slave systems are in competition with eachother

Question 39

strength of WMM (scans)

Answer 39

• Braver et al
• Evidence found from Neuroscanning
  -positive correlation between increasing cognitive load processed by CE and increasing levels of activation in the prefrontal cortex

-supports idea that CE has role of allocating tasks to slave systems : limited processing capacity : as reflected by the increased brain activation levels , thus suggesting that WMM is accurate in its mechanism of the CE

(diff parts of the brain are also active during visual and verbal wm tasks)

Question 40

Outline the interference explanation for forgetting

Answer 40

• interference : when recall of one memory blocks the recall of another causing forgettng or distorted perceptions of these memories
  can be : PORN
  retroactive : new memories block the recall of old memories
• greater when the two lots of information are similar
• less likely to occur when there is a gap between the instances of learning.

proactive : old memories block the recall of new memories

Question 41

Outline research evidence for interference for forgetting

Answer 41

McGeoch and McDonald (1931)

• participants divided into 6 groups to recall different lists of words :
  (first learnt the original list)
  Synonyms
  Anonyms
  Words unrelated to original list
  3 digit numbers
  constant. syllables
  CONTROL group - no new list
• those that learnt the list of synonyms experienced an average recall of 3.1 fewer correct items recalled , compared to control
• PIRI : previously stored info makes new similar info more difficult to store OR new information overwrites previous similar memories because of similarity

positive correlation between forgetting and similarity
(EVAL) : avoid similar material

Question 42

limitation of interference (reasearch)

Answer 42

• use of artificial stimuli in research supporting interference

-e.g list of random list of words that have no personal meaning to the participants
- therefore findings found from these studies may have low mundane realism

• this is because in real life we are more likely to learn lists of meaningful information such as topic lists for psychology : we draw links upon this info : have personal meaning to us

low ecological validity
- these factors may therefore influence forgetting not cause

Question 43

Strength of interference as an explanation for forgetting FAULTYYY

Answer 43

• consistantly demonstrated by several studies , particularly laboratory experiments
• increases the validity of the theory due to highly controlled condtions in lab experiments : using standardised instructions alongside removal of biasing effects of extraneous variables
• increases reliability of findings & generalisability

Question 44

strength of interference for forgetting ( real life research)

Answer 44

Baddeley and hitch
- in a group of rugby players who had to recall their last game and the number of games they’d played that season (different for each player)

• found : the more games the player had played that season the poorer the recall of the individual
• this can be explained in terms of retroactive interference where it was more likely that the memories of the newer games would interfere or block the recall of the older games
• real life example : suggests how interference can occur day-to-day life
  counterpoint - interference in normal day to day life is unusual : conditions needed for interference are rare and specific : forgetting can be better explained by other approaches E.G retrieval failure

Question 45

weakness of interference as an explanation for forgetting ( methodology : timing)

Answer 45

• second methodological criticism of interference experimental studies :further suggesting lack of mudane realism and reliability :
• often conducted in very short spaces of time : participants recalling words 1-2 hours after they have learnt them
• this does not reflect the normal passage of time in the real world : would usually be asked to recall information days-weeks after learning them
  E.G EXAM

-suggests interference is unlikely to be a valid explanation for forgetting in the LTM
-cant be generalised : low ecologiical validity

Question 46

what is meant by “retrieval failure” ?

Answer 46

forgetting occurs in the absence of appropriate cue/prompts/triggers/clues/’tip-of-the-tongue’ forgetting

*   context dependent – being in a different place may inhibit memory

*   state dependent – being in a different mood/state of arousal may inhibit memory

*   category dependent – lack of organisation may inhibit memory

*   credit reference to the encoding specificity principle

Question 47

Outline retrival failure as an explanation for forgetting

Answer 47

• suggests that forgetting occurs when the “cues” (triggers of information recollection) present at the time of encoding a memory are not present at the time of recall

Tulving’s specificity principle (ESP) : a cue has to be both present at time of encoding and at time of recall

context dependant forgetting : when our external cues at the time of encoding a memory are not present at the time of recall
e.g : place , weather

state-dependant forgetting : when our internal cues at the time of encoding a memory are not present at the time or recall

Question 48

Outline research support conducted into retrieval failure (context)

Answer 48

** Deep sea underwater divers**
Godden and Baddeley :
- studied divers who had learnt information either on dry land or underwater

-recall was 50% worse if tested in a different context to which originally learning the information
-recall was best when asked to recall in the same context where originally learning info

this suggests that being in the same context as you learned the information in when you are being tested on it aids recall

Question 49

Outline research support conducted into retrieval failure (state)

Answer 49

carter and cassaday 1998
-participants took anti-histamines (minor sedative effect)
- change of internal cue at time of recall or learning

found :
40% higher rates of accurate recall in matching conditions of learning drug- recall drug and normal learning - normall recall
(when cue absent recall poor)

Question 50

strength of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting (eysenck)

Answer 50

Eysenck : conducted memory into research

• suggested : retrieval failure may be the main reason that we forget information from the LTM
• alongside the strictly controlled conditons of lab experiments : reducing biasing effects of extraneous and confounding variables
• this increases the validity of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting : due to increased confidence placed in conclusions based of the experimental findings
  CP: lab study

Question 51

limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting ( real life)

Answer 51

• findings found from studies conducted into retrieval failure may lack ecological validity

-Baddeley argued that it is difficult to find real life conditions that are as polar as water and land
- this questions the existance of context dependant effects in real life

-suggests that retrieval failure may be best suited to explaining cases of forgetting where the cues associated with the encoding of the memory are significantly/uncommonly distinct

• this is not an accurate depiction of real life forgetting in day to day life

Question 52

limitation of retrieval failure ( repeated study)

Answer 52

• CDF may depend on the type of memory being tested

-Godden and Baddeley repeated their underwater deep-sea divers experiment but tested for recognition rather of learnt words rather than recall
- found no significant difference between accuracy of recognition between matched condition and non matched condition

-retrieval failure may only explain forgetting for some types of memory tested in specific ways in certain conditions
-further suggests : findings from retrieval failure suffer from poor generalisability

Question 53

limitation of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting (esp)

Answer 53

The encoding specificity principle suffers from cyclical reasoning due to its over-reliance on assumptions.

For example, it may not always be the case that differences between cues at the time of encoding and recall causes retrieval failure, but the cyclical nature of the ESP suggests that it is so.

Question 54

Outline misleading information as a factor effecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Answer 54

• accuracy of EWT can be reduced by the influence of misleading information in the form of post-event discussions and leading questions

leading questions can be explained in terms of :
response bias : questions only influence the participants to give a certain answer

Substitution explanation : (loftus and palmer)
-leading questions change the eyewitness’ memory of the crime

post-event discussions :
- describe the discussions that take place between co-witnesses after the crime has taken place, and is subject to the influence of media and TV reports on the crime, as well as participants’ pre-conceived expectations of how they would imagine the crime.

Question 55

Outline research evidence for misleading information effecting accuracy of EWT (post event discussions)

Answer 55

Gabbert et al (2003)

using a matched-pairs design, showed participants a film clip of the same crime scene, but with different details for each member. After engaging in post-event discussions with the other member of each pair and individually completing a test of recall, the researchers found 71% inaccuracy rates of information gained through such discussions, compared to a 0% control group rate who had worked alone throughout.
(meemory conformity)

Question 56

Outline research evidence for misleading information effecting accuracy of EWT (leading queestions)

Answer 56

LOFTUS AND PALMER
- participants watched a film of a car crash and then gave estimations of the speed of the car
-based on leading question “how fast were the cars when they X into eachother” with each group being exposed to a different critical verb
“smashed” speed estimate 8.7mph higher than those who heard “contacted”
- suggests that there is a correct answer : causing false memories by manipulating wording of their question
-it is the X explanation : altering peoples perceptions

Question 57

strength into misleading information as an explanation for inaccuracy of EWT

(real life applications)

Answer 57

+ real life applications
- research has lead to important practical uses for police officers and investigators

• because : consequences of inaccurate EWT information can be very serious

-Loftus claimed : leading questions can have such a distorting influence on memory that police officers need to be careful about how they phrase questions when interviewing eyewitnesses

• psychologists can make difference to peoples lives e.g changing of how legal systems work

Question 58

weakness into misleading information as an explanation for inaccuracy of EWT

methodology

Answer 58

key methodological criticism for studies of EWT is that they often use the same, young target to identify.

• argued by Anastasi and Rhodes, may be affected by own age bias, which describes the tendency to recall others from your own age group with a high degree of accuracy, with a lower accuracy rate for those from other age groups.

This means that participants aged 55-78 years may be inaccurately represented as having a lower accuracy of EWT, due to the frequent use of young targets.

Question 59

weakness into misleading information as an explanation for inaccuracy of EWT

(demand characteristcs)

Answer 59

— Demand characteristics may reduce the reliability of the findings

• argued by Zaragosa and McCloskey:
  suggest that participants often want to be as helpful and attentive as possible.

This means that, through the mechanism of social desirability bias and the ‘Please-U’ effect, when in doubt over their answer to a question, they are likely to give an answer which seems most beneficial or expected of the researcher,

thus biasing the results and reducing the likelihood that the same results will be demonstrated again.

Question 60

weakness into misleading information as an explanation for inaccuracy of EWT

(artifical task )

Answer 60

• use of artificial tasks and stimuli by loftus and palmer and gabbert

-reduces ecological validity of findings and mudanee realism of the methodology

For example, the film clips of the car crashes do not expose participants to the anxiety of experiencing a real-life car crash.

This anxiety may either have a negative (Johnson and Scott) or positive (Yuille and Cutshall) effect on the accuracy of EWT, thus biasing the findings.

Question 61

Outline anxiety as a factor effecting accuracy of EWT

Answer 61

anxiety : psychological response to external pressures e.g increased sweating and heart rate

negative effect :
- Johnson and scott

tunnel theory of memory: people have eenhanced memory for certain events
(limited amount of memory in each store)
weapon focus effect: attenttion is drawn towards the weapon as a source of anxiety

positive effect:
- Yuille and Cutshall

Question 62

Outline research evidence for the negative affect of anxiety on EWT

Answer 62

• Johnson and scott
  independant group design
• high anxiety condition overheard heated argument in neighbouring room : sound of smashing glass and man walking through waiting room with bloody paper knife - as opposed to greasy pen in low-anxiety condition

asking to identify man :
- 16% lower rates of recall from high anxiety condition compared to Low Anxiety
(high : 33%
low : 44%)

tunnel theory of memory: people have eenhanced memory for certain events
weapon focus effect: attenttion is drawn towards the weapon as a source of anxiety

Question 63

Outline research evidence for the positive effect of anxiety on EWT

Answer 63

• Yuille and Cutshall 1986
• 13 eyewitnesses 5 months after a real life shooting at a shop in canada
• eyewitness accuracy was still high after this period:
  11% higher accuracy of recall for those eyewitnesses who ranked their anxiety as “high” (compared to “low”) at the time of shooting using a 7-point anxiety scale
• small discrepancies ab height weight and clothingg
• supports : high psychological arousal draws our attention to external cues through the ‘fight or flight’ response, where such attention may have given us an evolutionary advantage by increasing our chances of escaping and survival.

Question 64

explain contradictory findings of anxiety for EWT

Answer 64

Yerkes and Dodson
-relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an “inverted U”

Deffenbacher : reviewed 21 studies of EWT
- contradictory findings on anxiety
-used the Yerkes-Dodson law to explain the findings
- there is an optimal level of anxiety where we recall with maximum accuracy
(explain the curve)

Question 65

limitation of anxiety as a factor effecting accuracy of EWT (weapon effect)

Answer 65

• weapon focus effect may be testing for effects of surprise rather than anxiety

-e.g pickel found that highest levels oof accuracy of EWT were experienced in the condition of high unusualness
e.g raw chicken in a hairdressing salon

-can only explain certain influences of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT

Question 66

limitation of anxiety as a factor effecting accuracy of EWT ( ethics)

Answer 66

-ethical issues associated with exposing participants to distressing images of car crash (johnson and scott)
-forcing them to recall traumatic crime scenes that have occured in the past (Yuille and cutshall)

-breaches BPS ethical guidelines of protction from psychological harm

-cost benefit analysis needed to compare associated ethical costs w benefits of increased knowledge of effects of anxiety on EWT

Question 67

limitation of anxiety as a factor effecting accuracy of EWT ( demdb )

Answer 67

(Johnson and Scott’s) research has been criticised for lacking ecological validity.

-outside of lab , in reception , may have anticipated that that something was going to happen : affected accuracy of their judgments
-please U : demand characteristics

• e.g Yuille and Cutshall: real life study : may not represent this (refute the findings)
  -does not represent real life cases of anxiety

Question 68

limitation of anxiety as a factor effecting accuracy of EWT ( real life)

Answer 68

• real life studies : particularly field studies (study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting)
• susceptible to biasing of extraneous variables which have not been controlled
• e.g Yuille and Cutshall : couldnt control influence of post-event discussions : reduce accuracy of EWT (Gabbert et al)
  media influences : TV report , effects of individual schemas
• field studies of EWT may be flawed in that they lack reliability

Question 69

Outline the cognitive interview

Answer 69

Report everything = Even seemingly insignificant details may be important or trigger the recall of larger events, by acting as a ‘cue’ (think back to retrieval failure!). Catalysed by internal and external cues

Reinstate the context Recalling the weather, location and mood of the day prevents context dependent forgetting by reminding the eyewitness of their external cues at the time which may trigger recall

Reverse the order Recalling events in a different order, other than chronological, reduces the ability of the eyewitness to lie (as it is simply difficult) and also reduces the impact of schemas on their perception of events.

Change the perspective Recalling events from the perspective of the victim or persecutor prevents the eyewitness’ account from being affected by their own schemas or pre-conceived perceptions of how the crime, in their opinion, happened.

Question 70

outline the enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 70

Fisher et al (1987) : developed the enhanced cognitive interview

• focuses on social dynamics of interactions between the eyewitnesses and the interviewer

E.G : knowing when to make eye contact and when to diminish it : increases likelihood that eyewitness will be calm and comftorable

• increases the trust the eyewitness places in the interviewer : increases likelihood that EW will answer truthfully ab personal/sensitive topics

Question 71

limitation of CI (time)

Answer 71

significantly time consuming compared to the standard police interview

• requires special skills : little practical value

E.G kebbel and wagstaff argued that only a few hours of training is insufficient to adequately train interviewers , especially for enhanced CI

• lack of time for training may xplain why some police forces are unimpressed by enhanced CI

Question 72

limitation of CI

Answer 72

• subsequently increases inaccurate recall along with accurate
• correct information 81% increase
  -incorrect information 61%
  as suggested by Kohnken et al 1999
• appears counterintuitive as main aim of CI is to improve accurate recall of correct info
• decreases validity and practical application

Question 73

strength of CI

Answer 73

+ The entire CI need not be used to experience the benefits, as Milne and Bull (2002) suggested,

where context reinstatement and report everything produced the greatest accuracy of recall of correct information as compared to any other combinations of steps.

This means that even if police forces do not have enough time to train the entire force for all of the 4 steps involved in the CI, even gradual changes from the standard police interview can increase the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony