memory

Question 1

sensory register

Answer 1

the memory store for each of our five senses
coding: modality specific: iconic/echoic
capacity: very large
duration: less than 1/2 a second

Question 2

STM

Answer 2

coding: acoustic
capacity: 7 +-2
duration: 18-30 seconds

Question 3

LTM

Answer 3

coding: semantic
capacity: unlimited
duration: up to a liftetime

Question 4

retrieval

Answer 4

recovering information from storage

Question 5

multi-store model

Answer 5

a theory of how the memory works in terms of 3 stores; sensory register, STM and LTM. also describes how information is transferred from one store to another, what makes some memories last and what makes some memories disappear

Question 6

episodic memory

Answer 6

• specifically linked to personal experiences
  — TIME STAMPED (you remember when as well as what)
  — CONTEXT in which it happened as well as EMOTIONS you felt at the time
  — you have to make a CONSCIOUS EFFORT to recall them

Question 7

semantic memory

Answer 7

• consist of our shared knowledge of the world
• eg the capital of france is paris, or it is not appropriate to laugh when someone’s crying
• they usually start as episodic memories but gradually become semantic (eg last tuesday i learnt trigonometry…but as time goes on you forget when you did)
• the info can be generalised

Question 8

episodic and semantic memories are declarative memories, similarities and differences?

Answer 8

similarities - explicit - we put in conscious effort to remember them
differences - E is time stamped, S is not…E are more vulnerable to distortion and forgetting, S less vulnerable

Question 9

procedural memory

Answer 9

skill based info that becomes automatic after repetition

• linked to skill based info eg riding a bike
• becomes automatic after practice/repetition
• we are then less aware/conscious of these memories because they have become automatic
• these automatic skills allow us to multitask (not having to think about cycling allows us to focus on road safety)

Question 10

anterograde amnesia

Answer 10

inability to make new memories from after the injury/illness

Question 11

type of memory study:
Clive Wearing

Answer 11

global amnesia (anterograde and retrograde amnesia)
- caught a virus that attacked his CNS and hippocampus.
- duration of his STM = 7-30 seconds
- still has semantic and procedural memory, but not episodic as that is found in the hippocampus

shows: different types of memory exist, and damage to one doesn’t mean damage to others

Question 12

retrograde amnesia

Answer 12

loss of memories from before the event

Question 13

inference (Tulving)

Answer 13

a conclusion drawn about an unobservable behaviour based on other observable behaviours. memories are unobservable so cognitive psychologists must infer about their existence
- Tulving et al’s work gives a physical and objective reality to the different types of LTM: this is good

Question 14

working memory model is about / made of

Answer 14

an explanation of how STM is organised and how it works
(Baddeley and Hitch (1974))

• WMM is concerned with the part of the mind that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating information from the environment
• 4 main components: central executive, visuo-spatial sketch pad, phonological loop, episodic buffer

Question 15

central executive + capacity

Answer 15

• decides which data we should pay attention to
• allocates tasks to relevant slave systems

PROCESSING CAPACITY - very limited

Question 16

phonological loop + capacity

Answer 16

• one of the slave systems
• processes auditory info (coding acoustic) and preserves the order in which the info arrives
• 2 subsystems
  — phonological store - stores words you hear
  — articulatory control system - allows for maintenance rehearsal, (repeating the words you hear in a ‘loop’ to keep them in working memory while they are needed)

CAPACITY - 2 seconds of what you can say

Question 17

visuo-spatial sketchpad + capacity

Answer 17

• stores visual and/or spatial information
• Logie 1995 subdivided the visuo-spatial sketchpad:
  — the visual cache - stores visual data
  — the inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
• CAPACITY limited to about 3-4 objects (Baddeley 2003)

Question 18

episodic buffer + capacity

Answer 18

• the storage component of the central executive
• temporary store for info, integrating all info processes by the other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing ie recording events (episodes) that are happening
• limited capacity of approx 4 chunks (Baddeley 2012)
• links WM to LTM and wider cognitive processes like perception

Question 19

forgetting: interference

Answer 19

• in LTM (permanent store, so forgetting must be because we cannot access the memories)
• interference occurs when a piece of information CONFLICTS with another piece of information. when this happens one memory blocks another one and the info is forgotten (info is distorted)

failure to retrieve is due to accessibility. interference stops us locating them in our LTM.

Question 20

proactive interference

Answer 20

cant learn a new task due to old task interfering
(can’t remember new things, but remember old things)

Question 21

retroactive interference

Answer 21

forgetting a previous learnt task due to learning a new task.
(remember new things not old)

Question 22

real world interference study
Baddeley and Hitch 1977

Answer 22

they asked rugby players to recall names of the teams they played against over the same time (one season)
some players missed matches due to injuries though
players who played the most games (most interference for memory) had the poorest recall.
- study shows interference can operate in some real world situations, increasing validity of the theory
- counterpoint: interference may cause some forgetting in everyday situations but is unusual as conditions necessary for this to occur are rare unlike lab studies where ideal conditions for interference are created.

Question 23

retrieval failure + cues

Answer 23

form of forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory. available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided
cue = a trigger of information that allows us to access a memory

if context and feelings of individual are similar in recall and the situation where memory was originally processed, chances of recalling memory is higher

when info is placed in our memory, associated cues are also stored. internal (mood) and external (temp or smell) cues can help facilitate recall of an LTM

Question 24

Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP)

Answer 24

Tulving 1983 reviewed findings into retrieval failure and found a pattern

“if a cue helps us recall info, it has to be present at encoding and at retrieval. “

some cues are meaningful (STM for short term memory) and some are not (context-dependent forgetting and state-dependent forgetting

Question 25

context dependent forgetting
Godden and Baddeley 1975

Answer 25

deep sea divers learnt a list of words in 4 conditions
- learn and recall on land
- learn and recall underwater
- learn on land recall underwater
- learn underwater recall on land
bottom 2 conditions had 40% lower recall as external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall, which led to retrieval failure

Question 26

state dependent forgetting
Carter and Cassaday 1998

Answer 26

gave antihistamine drugs to Ps. had a mild sedative effect making them slightly drowsy. creates internal physiological state different from normal state of being awake and alert. Ps learnt list of words and passages of prose then recalled.
- learn and recall on drug
- learn and recall not on drug
- learn on drug recall not
- learn not on drug recall on
in mismatched conditions recall was significantly worse

Question 27

eyewitness testimony is

Answer 27

a legal term, an account given by people of an event they have witnessed

Question 28

how does eyewitness testimony work

Answer 28

witness encodes info into LTM, may be partial as the event occurs quickly/at night/accompanied by rapid of violent action.
witness retains info for a time, memories may be lost/modified during retention, other activities may interfere with the memory itself

Question 29

factors affecting eyewitness testimony

Answer 29

misleading info:
leading questions - suggesting a desired answer
post-event discussion - witness discussion after an event that may influence accuracy of each witnesses recollection

Question 30

eyewitness testimony: post event discussion case study

Answer 30

Gabbert et al (2003)
aim: to see if PED effects accuracy of EWT

procedure: Ps watched video of a girl stealing money from a wallet. Ps tested either individually (control group) or in pairs (co-witness group). this group were told they’d watched the same video, but really had seen different perspectives of the same crime, only one had witnessed the girl stealing. Ps discussed in the co-witness group, and then all of them did a questionnaire.

findings: found 71% of witnesses in co-witness group recalled info they hadn’t seen and 60% said girl was guilty even though they hadn’t seen her commit a crime.

evaluation: - questionable ecological validity, Ps knew they were in an experiment so more likely to have paid close attention to the details, results don’t reflect everyday examples of crime where witnesses may be exposed to less info.
+ good population validity - she tested uni students and older adults and found little difference between the conditions.

Question 31

anxiety def

Answer 31

a state of apprehension worry or fear
- heart rate increases

Question 32

anxiety negatively affects accuracy of EWT study
Johnson and Scott (1976)

Answer 32

the high-anxiety condition: overheard a heated argument in the neighbouring room, with the sound of smashing glass and a man walking through the waiting room with a bloody paper-knife
low anxiety: overheard a discussion in a lab about equipment failure, man walked out with a greasy pen
when asked to identify the man:

FINDINGS: participants in high-anxiety condition experienced 16% lower rates of accurate recall, compared to the low- anxiety condition.
this may be explained by the tunnel theory of memory and the weapon focus effect, where our attention is drawn towards the weapon as a source of anxiety.

strength: lab study - high control over EVs
limitation: participant variables (matched pairs design would be better)

Question 33

anxiety positively affects accuracy of EWT
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Answer 33

they followed up 13 eyewitnesses, 5 months after a real-life shooting at a shop in Canada.

FINDINGS - eyewitness accuracy was still high after this period, with an 11% higher accuracy of recall for those eyewitnesses who ranked their anxiety as ‘high’ (compared to ‘low’) at the time of the shooting, using a 7-point anxiety scale

strength: high ecological validity (real life experience)
limitation: lack of control over EVs (natural experiment), participant variables

Question 34

Yerkes-Dodson Law (anxiety)

Answer 34

suggests an ‘inverted-U’ relationship between increasing arousal and increasing performance (in this case the accuracy of EWT) with moderate arousal yielding the highest levels of performance

strength:
limitation: can be considered as overly-simplified explanation of anxiety, does not take into account the multiple factors which make up arousal eg cognitive, behavioural, emotional etc

Question 35

cognitive interview def

Answer 35

a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories.

report everything, reinstate context, reverse the order, change perspective