approaches

Question 1

classical conditioning def

Answer 1

learning through association
a neutral stimulus begins to elicit a conditional response
eg Pavlovs dog

Question 2

operant conditioning def

Answer 2

we learn depending on the consequences
eg Skinners rats

Question 3

vicarious reinforcement def

Answer 3

if we observe someone being reinforced for their behaviour we are more likely to imitate it
identification: if we see ourselves like that person, we think we are capable of imitating

Question 4

inference def

Answer 4

make an assumption about the processing based on the behaviour you see

Question 5

mediational processes
(cognitive processes)

Answer 5

attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation

Question 6

schema def
(cognitive)

Answer 6

package of info and knowledge developed through experience
(we have schemas about items like chairs or events like weddings
help us process info quickly, simplify complex situations and predict what might happen
can distort our interpretation of sensory info and lead to perceptual errors
trigger a behaviour (surrender, overcompensation, avoidance)

Question 7

Bugelski and Alampay 1962
(cognitive approach)

Answer 7

students shown either drawings or faces or animals
asked to say what they thought the final picture was (same for both groups, was ambiguous)
those who had been previously shown faces were more likely to say ‘man’
those who had been previously shown animals were more likely to say ‘rat’

• less determinist than other approaches (have some free will)

+ improved understanding of a number of psychological abnormalities (depression and phobias)
+ contributed to therapies like CBT that helped a number of people to treat psychological disorders
- lacks ecological validity - little diagrams (artificial stimuli) doesn’t reflect real life situations

Question 8

genotype def

Answer 8

genetic profile of an individual ie genes they carry

Question 9

phenotype def

Answer 9

an organisms physical manifestation of their genotype

Question 10

neurotransmitter def

Answer 10

chemical messengers that carry from a neurone to the next target cell

Question 11

behaviourist approach

Answer 11

learning from experience by classical/operant conditioning

Question 12

Pavlov’s dog study
classical conditioning
(behaviourist approach)

Answer 12

before: unconditioned stimulus (food) elicits unconditioned response (salivation)
- neutral stimulus (bell) elicits no conditioned response (no salivation)

during: bell and food together elicits unconditioned response (salivation)

after: conditioned stimulus (bell) elicits conditioned response (salivation)

Question 13

Skinners study
operant conditioning
(behaviourist approach)

Answer 13

rats put in a Skinner box
whenever they pressed a lever they would receive food
OR they had constant electric shocks and pressing the lever would stop them

L: research based on animals, may not correlate to humans
S: controlled conditions so high internal validity
S: applies to real life, we use punishment to stop bad behaviour in prisons and schools
L: determinist, ignores free will

Question 14

reinforcement
(behaviourist)

Answer 14

increases behaviour
positive reinforcement - adding something to increase behaviour
negative reinforcement - remove something to increase behaviour

Question 15

punishment
(behaviourist)

Answer 15

decreases behaviour
positive punishment - add something to decrease behaviour
negative punishment - remove something to decrease behaviour

Question 16

social learning theory def

Answer 16

behaviour is learned through observation and imitation
- observing consequences and whether to carry out in future or not

Question 17

Bandura’s research
(social learning theory)

Answer 17

bobo doll study - 72 children
found that children imitate adults

Question 18

emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 18

looks at biological basis to thought processes
- study of influence of different brain structures on mental processes
- brain imaging techniques have developed (fMRI and PET scans)

patients undergo cognitive tasks, brain activity is shown and gives understanding of which areas are involved in that task

Question 19

evaluation point on cognitive approach
(machine reductionism)

Answer 19

doesn’t take emotions into account, if we are thought about like a computer

Question 20

Nestadt et al 2010
biological approach

Answer 20

reviewed previous twin studies of OCD
- 100 pairs monozygotic where one had OCD, 68% both had OCD
- 100 pairs dizygotic where one had OCD, 31% both had OCD

supports theory but not completely as the mz twin is not 100%, so phenotype is not completely down to genes
mz could have higher concordance rates because they are treated more similarly

Question 21

psychodynamic approach

Answer 21

about your unconscious
behaviour reflects the interactions between the conscious and unconscious mind
- emphasis on early childhood

Question 22

psychodynamic: structure of personality

Answer 22

3 elements always in conflict with each other
Id = driven by pleasure principle, present from birth, wants everything now and has no morals
ego = conscious self, driven by reality principle, present from about 2 years, tries to balance demands of id and superego
superego = our conscience, driven by morality principle, from about 5 years, opposite to id, when we identify with the moral attitudes of our same sex parent

Question 23

evaluating superego

Answer 23

superego = if same sex parent is not present, superego (morals) won’t develop properly. however not all people who grow up without same sex parent becomes a criminal

Question 24

ego defence mechanisms

Answer 24

aim to protect our conscious self of the unconscious conflict between id and superego
if we are unsuccessful, anxiety caused by the conflict could manifest as a clinical disorder (anxiety or phobias)

repression = pushing unwanted memories/emotions into the unconscious mind
denial = refusing to accept the truth
displacement = feeling expressed towards a substitute rather than the initial target as it is unacceptable to have that feeling towards the initial target

Question 25

psychosexual stages overview

Answer 25

different stages through childhood where we seek pleasure from different objects to be psychologically healthy we must complete each stage if we are deprived / over gratified at any stage we can become fixated

Question 26

psychosexual stages

Answer 26

oral = 0-1 year, mouth is the focus of pleasure (breast feeding) can lead to adult smoking, overeating/drinking or being needy anal = 1-3 year, defection is the main source of pleasure, first time infant has some control, can lead to obsession with hygiene (potentially ocd) phallic = 3-5 year, genital stimulation is focus of pleasure, development differs between sexes, main features are Oedipus/Electra complex, fixation can lead to narcissism

Question 27

Oedipus/Electra complex

Answer 27

Oedipus: boys desire the mother, see father as rival and want him gone, leads to fear that father will find out and castrate him (castration anxiety), so boy represses feelings, begins to identify with father and internalises his moral views (development of superego) Electra: girls also desire mother, realise they don’t have a penis (develops penis envy), so develops affection for father, becomes hostile to mother as she sees her as a love rival, eventually resolves feelings to mother as she replaces desire for father with desire for a baby, identifies with mother and internalises her moral views (development of superego)

Question 28

psychodynamic case study Little Hans - Freud 1909

Answer 28

- 5 year old boy, phobia of horse biting him - he was scared horses would bite him in the street (his mother told him if he kept playing with his penis the doctor would cut it off), dreamed about having a child with his mum supports the phallic stage - active interest in penis Oedipus complex - desire for mother shown in dream (has kids with mother) displacement - fear of horses biting him instead of castration anxiety (black bits around horses mouth represents fathers moustache) evaluation: + influential, dominant approach for the first half of 20th century + practical application - psychoanalysis used to treat people - impossible to test using scientific methodology (can’t falsify) - very deterministic - psychic determinism (superego->same morals as parent) this is wrong (criminals don’t have bad parents always), so proves the determinism is wrong - based on self report, social desirability and subjectivity problems

Question 29

free will

Answer 29

humans can make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces - we have control over our behaviour, certain constraints (laws, morals) but ultimately we can choose - we are all unique + subjective so (objective) general principles of human behaviour are not possible

Question 30

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 30

system that motivates our behaviour we must meet all of these to achieve our primary goal of self actualisation (desire to achieve their full potential) physiological needs -> safety and security -> love and belonging -> self esteem -> self actualisation

Question 31

Carl Rogers view: the self and congruence, conditions of worth

Answer 31

Carl Rogers: for personal growth to be achieved an individuals concept of self must have congruence with their ideal self. if too big a gap exists the person will experience incongruence so self actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings of self worth. to reduce the gap, he developed client-centred therapy. he claimed many issues like worthlessness have roots in childhood (lack of unconditional love/positive regard) from parents

Question 32

humanistic approach evaluation

Answer 32

+ client cantered therapies are effective (not as much as CBT though) + not reductionist, so more valid? - unscientific, approach is anti-scientific and thinks it’s pointless, therefore no evidence is found to properly support it - hierarchy of needs isn’t universal as it is culture specific (focuses on individuals needs which is an individualist culture’s ideals) collectivist cultures exist and focus on needs of the group so self-actualisation may not be as relevant - social implications of free will, lack of ability to implement rules ?, could argue too lenient in prisons

Question 33

Rogers: 3 selves

Answer 33

self concept: how you see yourself ideal self: the self you want to be real self: self you actually are (difficult to determine as humanistic approach is subjective)

Question 34

conditions of worth

Answer 34

we need to experience unconditional positive regard to achieve self-actualisation (someone must love us unconditionally eg parents family member partner) - these are the requirements we feel need to be met to feel loved) therapists can give their client unconditional positive regard to help them achieve congruence

Question 35

humanistic study: Sheffield et al 1995

Answer 35

studied 185 undergraduates, measured by a closed question questionnaire - positive correlation between level of self-actualisation and psychological health - suggests self actualisation does relate to satisfaction - all similar age, lacks population validity cannot be generalised - closed questions may produce not fully accurate result

Question 36

Wilhelm Wundt timeline

Answer 36

1873: published book ‘principles of physiological psychology’ 1879: opened first psychology lab in Leipzig - separated psychology from philosophy by looking at the mind in a more structured way by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements

Question 37

Wilhelm Wundt introspection

Answer 37

when Ps reflect on their own thoughts/experience eg, Ps listened to a ticking metronome (response to different stimuli) - he trained over 100 students to study psychology as a science - behaviourists said: not scientific as it is subjective, recalling own conscious thoughts means results vary from P to P - conscious thoughts can’t be observed and measured (not empirical evidence)

Question 38

emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 38

although Wundt thought introspection was scientific, but critics disagreed and came up with the behaviourist approach the emergence of psychology as a science began with use of highly controlled lab experiments (objective, empirically tested and replicable)

Question 39

emergence of psychology timeline (5)

Answer 39

Descartes (dualism) -> Wundt (introspection, first lab and book) -> Freud (developed psychodynamic and used psychoanalysis) -> Watson and Skinner (behaviourist, controlled lab studies) -> cognitive neuroscience (development of technology, biological, uses objective methods)

Question 40

mid-late 1900s

Answer 40

computers: people were seen as processing info like computers (internal mental processes) inferences can be made about mental processes because of lab studies technology: better understanding of the brain and biological processes led to biological approach brain scanning: objective, scientific, measurable way to study the brain, looking at brain activity involved in different behaviours (cognitive neuroscience)