Memory

Question 1

What are the different methods of testing memory?

Answer 1

1. Free recall
2. Cued recall - receive significant hints about the material
3. Recognition - chooses the correct item among several options
4. Savings - compares the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning
5. Implicit memory - an experience influences what you say or do, even if you’re not aware of the influence

Question 2

What’s the difference between procedural and declarative memories?

Answer 2

Procedural memories are memories of how to do something.

Declarative memories are memories we can readily state in words.

Question 3

What factors affect the accuracy of young children’s reports during questioning?

Answer 3

1. Delay of questioning - memory becomes less accurate over a long delay
2. Repeating the question - a child may change their answer if asked twice
3. Type of question - suggestive questions give less accurate responses
4. Hearing other children - children say the same thing as other children
5. Using physical representations - drawing out helps
6. Understanding a question

Question 4

What is the information-processing model of memory?

Answer 4

The information-processing model suggests that information is first encoded into our short-term memory; some is consolidated and stored in our long-term memory. Eventually, a cue from the environment prompts us to retrieve stored information.

Question 5

Define short-term and long-term memory.

Answer 5

Short-term memory is the temporary storage of recent events.
Long-term memory is the relatively permanent storage of events.

Question 6

What are the two types of long-term memory?

Answer 6

Semantic memory - the memory of principles and facts.
Episodic memory - memory for specific events in your life.

Question 7

What is source amnesia?

Answer 7

Source amnesia is when you forget when, where, or how you learned something.

Question 8

What is chunking?

Answer 8

Chunking is the grouping of items into meaningful sequences or clusters.

Question 9

What is consolidation?

Answer 9

Consolidation is when you convert a short-term memory into a long-term one.

Question 10

What is working memory?

Answer 10

Working memory is a system for working with current information and the ability to shift attention as needed among different tasks.

Question 11

What are the three parts of memorization?

Answer 11

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Question 12

What are the factors that influence encoding?

Answer 12

1. Effort to remember
2. Emotional arousal

Question 13

How does emotional arousal enhance memory encoding?

Answer 13

Moderate emotions increase the release of cortisol and epinephrine from the adrenal gland. These hormones stimulate brain areas that enhance memory storage.

Question 14

What is the difference between the primacy and recency effect?

Answer 14

The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first items of a list well.

The recency effect is the tendency to remember the final items on a list.

Question 15

What are the three types of processing in the depth-of-processing model?

Answer 15

1. Shallow processing
2. Intermediate processing
3. Deep processing

Question 16

What is the depth-of-processing principle?

Answer 16

The depth-of-processing principle suggests that how easily you retrieve a memory depends on the number and types of associations you form.

Question 17

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 17

The encoding specificity principle suggests that the associations you form at the time of learning will be the most effective retrieval cues later.

Question 18

What is hypermnesia?

Answer 18

Hypermnesia is the gain of memory over time.

Question 19

What is reconstruction?

Answer 19

Reconstruction is when you try to reconstruct an account based on distinct memories and on your expectations of what must have happened, and happens when you are trying to retrieve memories.

Question 20

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 20

Hindsight bias is the tendency to mould our recollection of the past to fit how events later turned out.

Question 21

What’s the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Answer 21

Proactive interference is when the old materials increase forgetting of new materials.

Retroactive interference is when new materials increase forgetting of old materials.

Question 22

What is dissociation?

Answer 22

Dissociation refers to memory that one has stored but cannot retrieve.

Question 23

Damage to which parts of the brain can lead to amnesia?

Answer 23

Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Question 24

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 24

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store new long-term memories.

Question 25

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 25

Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the brain damage.

Question 26

What is Korsakoff’s syndrome?

Answer 26

Korsakoff’s syndrome is a a condition caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine), usually as a result of chronic alcoholism, and leads to widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons, especially in the prefrontal cortex.
As a result, patients suffer apathy, confusion, and amnesia.

Question 27

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 27

Alzheimer’s disease is a condition occurring mostly in old age, characterized by increasingly severe memory loss, confusion, depression, disordered thinking, and impaired attention.

Question 28

How does Alzheimer’s disease occur?

Answer 28

Alzheimer’s results from an accumulation of harmful proteins in the brain and deterioration of brain cells, thus impairing arousal and attention.

Question 29

What is early childhood amnesia?

Answer 29

Early childhood amnesia is the scarcity of early episodic memories.

Question 30

What are the different levels of processing and how do they impact encoding?

Answer 30

1. Shallow processing leads to structural encoding
2. Intermediate processing leads to phonemic encoding
3. Deep processing leads to semantic encoding

Question 31

Explain the different types of encoding.

Answer 31

Structural encoding emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus.

Phonemic encoding emphasizes the phonetic sounds of words.

Semantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

Question 32

What is sensory memory and how does it work?

Answer 32

Sensory memory acts as a holding bin for sensory input and decides if it’s worth processing.
It usually retains the input for 1-2 seconds.

Question 33

What is iconic memory?

Answer 33

Iconic memory is the fast-decaying storage of visual information.

Question 34

What is echoic memory?

Answer 34

Echoic memory is the fast-decaying storage of auditory information

Question 35

How long does short-term memory hold information?

Answer 35

Our short-term memory holds limited amounts of information for up to 20-30 seconds.

Question 36

What kind of memory does long-term memory comprise of?

Answer 36

Explicit memory (semantic and episodic memory) and implicit memory (procedural memory and priming).

Question 37

Define explicit and implicit memory.

Answer 37

Explicit memory is the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past-experiences.

Implicit memory is unconscious recall, where past experiences influence later behavior and performances.

Question 38

What is semantic memory and which type of memory does it fall under?

Answer 38

Semantic memory is the memory of facts and general knowledge, and is classified under explicit long-term memory.

Question 39

What is episodic memory and which type of memory does it fall under?

Answer 39

Episodic memory is the memory of experienced events and personal recollections, and falls under explicit long-term memory.

Question 40

What is procedural memory and which type of memory does it fall under?

Answer 40

Procedural memory involves our motor skills and how to do things, and falls under implicit long-term memory.

Question 41

What is priming and which type of memory does it fall under?

Answer 41

Priming is the increases identification of objects/words based on recent exposure to other stimuli, and falls under implicit long-term memory.

Question 42

What is the serial position effect?

Answer 42

The serial position effect is the tendency to remember first and last items in a list, rather than the middle.

Question 43

What are the primacy and recency effects?

Answer 43

The primary effect is the tendency to remember the beginning pieces of a list.
The recency effect is the tendency to remember the end pieces of a list.

Question 44

What’s the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 44

Maintenance rehearsal is the straight repeating of information to memorize it.
Elaborative rehearsal involves giving meaning to new information to form new memories.

Question 45

What is the dual-coding theory?

Answer 45

The dual-coding theory suggests that memory is enhanced by using both semantic and visual codes.

Question 46

What are some characteristics of flashbulb memories?

Answer 46

Flashbulb memories are dramatic positive or negative pieces of memory, and are more vivid due to their traumatic nature.
Details might be distorted, and their accuracy fades over time.

Question 47

What is reality monitoring?

Answer 47

Reality monitoring is the ability to decide whether memories were derived from external or internal sources (self-generated information).

Question 48

What is source monitoring?

Answer 48

Source monitoring is the ability to recall when, where and how information was acquired.

Question 49

What are some reasons why we forget?

Answer 49

1. Ineffective encoding
2. Decay theory - memories fade with time
3. We replace old memories with new, updated versions of memories

Question 50

What’s the difference between retroactive and proactive interference?

Answer 50

Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with old.
Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with new.

Question 51

What are three ways we can measure memory?

Answer 51

We can measure memory by measuring our ability to recall, recognise, and relearn.
Recall - ability to retrieve information which has been learned earlier
Recognition - ability to identify previously encountered information
Relearn - effort is saved in having learned something before