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BIOLOGY > MEMORISATION PAPER 2 > Flashcards

MEMORISATION PAPER 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the role of phosphocreatine

A

it is a researve of phosphates
used to convert ADP to ATP for muscle contraction

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2
Q

what role does ATP play in muscle contraction

A

ATP causes the active transport of CA 2+ ions into the sarcoplasmic retriculum

ATP also binds to myosin heads inorder to form an actinmyosin cross bridge

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3
Q

what is the process of 2nd messenger model with adrenaline and glucagon

A

1.adrenaline/glucagon binds to protein receptor in target liver cell
2.protein changes shape anc acticates** adenyl cyclase**
3.then the adenyl cycles catalyses the converson of ATP to cyclic AMP
4.the cyclic amp then binds to protein enzyme Kinase changing its shape and activating it
5.the activated Kinase enzyme will catalyse conversion of glycogen to glucose
6.glucose leaves via facilitated diffusion

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4
Q

what is the 2nd messenger for adrenaline/glucose

A

CYCLIC AMP

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5
Q

WHAT IS

GLYCOGENESIS

A

MAKE GLYCOGEN FROM GLUCOSE

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6
Q

WHAT IS

GLYCOLYSIS

A

GLYCOGEN TO GLUCOSE

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7
Q

WHAT IS

GLUCONEOGENSIS

A

MAKING GLUCOSE FROM NON CARBOHYDRATES SUCH AS AMINO ACIDS

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8
Q

WHAT DOES INSULIN DO TO CELLS

A

1.CHANGES SHAPE OF THEIR GLUCOSE CARRIERS OT OPEN
2.MAKES VESICLES W PROTEIN CARRIERS FUSE TO THE CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE
3.INCREASES REATE OF RESPIRATION ( MAKES THERE BE LESS GLUCOSE IN CELL TO THEN CONC GRAD AND THEY ENTER THE CELL )
4.TRIGGER GLUCOSE TO BE CONVERTED TO GLYCOGEN

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9
Q

WHAT DOES GLUCAGON BIND TO

A

LIVER TARGET CELLS (HEPATOCYTES)

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10
Q

WHAT ELSE GLUCAGON DO OTHER THAN ACTIVATE GLYCOLYSIS

A
  • ACTIVATES ENZYMES INVOLVED IN GLUCONEOGENISIS
  • this is the conversion of non-carbs such as amino acids into glucose
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11
Q

what does glomerula filtrate pass through

A
  1. capillary epthelium
  2. gaps between podocyte cells that make up the basement membrane
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12
Q

what is the name of the system that ensure water always leaves into the blood capillary out of the loop of henle and collecting duct

A

counter current multiplier

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13
Q

WHAT RELEASES ADH

A

POSTERIER PITUATARY GLAND

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14
Q

WHERE ARE OSMORECEPTORS FOR WATER CONCENTRATION/POTENTIAL IN BLOOD

A

HYPOTHALAMUS

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15
Q

what is formula for making H2O at the end of oxidative phosphorylation

A

1/2 O2 + 2e- + 2H+ –> H2O

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16
Q

what are the processes that occur in the krebs cycle

A

1.4C molecule turns to 6C molecule as acetate/acety CoA is added
2. 2x CO2 are released
3. An NAD turns to NADH
4. FAD turns to FADH
5. ATP is made

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17
Q

draw out krebs cycle

A
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18
Q

draw out the link reaction

A
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19
Q

draw out glycolysis

A
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20
Q

what processes occur in the link reaction

A

1.CO2 is released
2.An NAD goes to NADH
3.acetate is made as intermediate
4.acetate joins CoA(conenzyme A)
5.AcetylCoA is made

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21
Q

what is made in glycolysis

A
  1. 2 net ATP are made
  2. 2 NADH are made
  3. 2 pyruvate are made
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22
Q

why is energy released in steps across the electron transport chain

A

because if it was all released in one go then more energy would be wasted as heat.
so the electrons carried by FAD and NAD are not transferred in one step but instead pass along a series of electron carriers gradually losing more energy.

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23
Q

what are the two alternative respiratory substrates

A

Lipids
Proteins

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24
Q

How are lipids used as respiratory substrates

A
  1. hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol
  2. glycerol is phosphorylated to make TP triose phosphate
  3. the fatty acid is broken down into 2 carbon fragments, converted to acetylCoA
  4. H atoms are also made and used to make ATP
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25
Q

how are proteins used as respiratory substrates

A
  1. hydrolysed to amino acids
  2. the NH2 group is remove
  3. then added into different parts depending on length of the C chain e.g. 3 -pyruvate
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26
Q

what us pyruvate converted to in animal anaerobic respiration

A

lactate

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27
Q

what is pyruvate converted to in anaerobic respiration with plants and microorganisms

A

ethanol and CO2

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28
Q

Define what is meant by epigenetics.

A

Heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes to the base sequence of DNA;

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29
Q

what is the epigenome

A

The epigenome controls gene expression through chemical modifications to DNA and associated proteins using chemical tags via methylation and acetylation

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30
Q

what three things should you mention when you talk about reject/accept hypothesis of chi-squared

A

-whether your chi-squared value is bigger or smaller than critical value
-at a 0.05 probability
-there is a —– probability that difference between observed and expected is due to chance

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31
Q

what is a DNA Probe

A

1.   Short single strand of DNA;
2.   Bases complementary (with DNA/allele/gene);

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32
Q

where do restriction endonucleases cut

A

They cut at recognition sites , which are often palindromic sequences.

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33
Q

how do you increase permeability in host cell for uptake of a vector

A

calcium ions
heatshock/electric shock

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34
Q

when you mention respiratory loses what else must you mention

A

heat loss

ALWAYS MENTION BOTH INCASE..

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35
Q

what are the temperatures involved in the PCR

A

95 degrees celsius to seperate the DNA
55 degrees celsius for addition of primers
72 degrees for the synthesis of DNA (optimum temp for DNA polymerase to work)

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36
Q

in what machine is PCR done

A

thermocycler

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37
Q

what do we use to pull the dna down in gel electrophoresis

A

electrical voltage

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38
Q

what 5 conditions need to met for hardy weinberg to apply to a population

A

1- No mutations arise

2- Population is isolated no flow of alleles in other out ( no immigration / migration)

3- There is no selection ,that is, alleles are equally likely to be passed to the next generation

4- Population is large

5- Mating is random

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39
Q

how do you write a speciation answer

A

1.what type- then explain (e.g. allopatric- geographically isolated)
2.reproductively isolated, no flow of genes
3.different seletion pressures
4.type of selection e.g. disruptive/stabalising/sirectional
5.genetic variation due to mutations
6.change in allele frequency of the diff genepools
7.eventually cannot breed to produce fertile offspring

some Qs can talk about 2 types so watch out for that

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40
Q

what is genetic drift

A

?? still need to come up with a good answer

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41
Q

Explain the advantage of species occupying different niches

A

(Less) competition for food/resource

42
Q

define niche

A

An organism’s role / in the ecosystem / community

43
Q

mark release recapture formula/
estimated population size

A
44
Q

Describe and explain how succession occurs
MS points

A
  1. (Colonisation by) pioneer (species);
  2. Change in environment / example of change caused by organisms present;
  3. Enables other species to colonise / survive;
  4. Change in diversity / biodiversity;
  5. Stability increases / less hostile environment;
  6. Climax community;

this is more of PLAN

these are just the MS point obv expand more in ur answer

45
Q

why would you want to conserve a habitat

A
  • tries remove CO2 (climate change)
  • economic e.g. tourism
  • high biodiversity should be protect as the genes can be used in medicine
46
Q

why are observed phenotypic ratios not the same as expected in genetic crosses

A

-random fertilisation
-small sample size
-epistasis
-linkage

think about the context, cuz some dont have linkage or epistasis

47
Q

what is the ratio for a heterozygous dihybrid cross

A

9:3:3:1

48
Q

what does ATP do in presynaptic membrane

A

It is used to reform acetylcholine with choline and acetyl

49
Q

WHAT ARE THE STEPS OF IN VIVO CLONING

A
  • isolation of the DNA
  • insertion of DNA into a vector
  • transformation - transfer of the DNA into a host cell (becomes transgenic)
  • identification of host cells that have taken up gene
  • cloning of host cell
50
Q

what are the 3 methods of producing DNA fragments

A
  • convert mRNA to cDNA using reverse transcriptase
  • use restriction endonucleases to cut out fragments
  • create gene using a gene machine
51
Q

where do restriction endonucleases cut?

A

recognition site

52
Q

describe epigenetics

A

Heritable changes in gene function;
Without changes to the base sequence of DNA;

53
Q

how can you describe the membrane of an axon at resting potential interms of permeability

A

the membrane is more permeable to K ions than Na ions….

54
Q

give reasons for low percentage energy transferred forn secondary to tertialry consumer

A
  • respiratory loses from heat
  • not all of the organism can be consumed e.g. faeces
  • exctretion such as urine
55
Q

why would light from the sun not be used for photosynthesis

A
  • does not land on a chlorophyll molecule
  • nother limiting factor e.g. CO2
  • ## wavelength cannot be absorbed by a pigment
56
Q

why is ‘ the increase in biomass’ used as a measurment of net primary productivity

A
  • the biomass represents the drymass/mass of carbon
  • it takes into account respiratory loses
  • NPP= (GPP-R)
57
Q

what do you need to include in Qs about energy and ecosystems

A

ALWAYS ADD THE FORMULAS

58
Q

what are the characteristic of begnin tumours

A
  • large
  • slow growth
  • relatively normal nucleus
  • localised effect
  • produce adhesion molecules to they stick together DO NOT METASISE
59
Q

what are characteristics of malignant tumours

A
  • large
  • rapid growth
  • larger and darker nucleus due to more DNA
  • systematic affect (whole body )
  • do not have adhesion molecuels and so they spread THEY METASISE
60
Q

what does standard deviation tell you

A

Degree of spread / variation from the mean

61
Q

whtas the name of substance that binds to receptor protein and leads to cell dividision..

(execessively made by oncogenes)

A

growth factors

62
Q

what epigenetic change can lead to cancer

A
  • hypermethylation of tumour surpressor genes
  • acetylation at an oncogene….
63
Q

why are post menopausal women more likely to develop breast cancer

A
  • they produce lots of oestrogen in breast tissue
  • this leads to increased cell division in breast tissue
  • this can increase risk of malignant tumour
64
Q

why do we need a primer to do PCR

A
  • DNA polymerase can only bind nucleotides to the end of an existing chain
  • also it prevents the two complementary chains from rejoiningf
65
Q

what enzyme is used in PCR

A

taq polymerase/ DNA polymerase

66
Q

what word is used to describe binding between DNA probes and target allele

A

anneal

67
Q

what are the 5 main stages of genetic fingerprinitng

A
  • extraction
  • digestion
  • seperation
  • hybridisation
  • development
68
Q

describe genetic finger printing

A
69
Q

at what stage are DNA fragments on the agar transferred and where to

A
  • during the end of seperation, before hybridisation
  • nylon membrane
70
Q

name of precess a probe has been binded to DNA

A

hybridisation

71
Q

what needs to be done to create a generator potential in rod cells

A

rhodopsin pigment needs to be broken down, low intensity light is enough

72
Q

what needs to be done to create a generator potential in cone cells

A

iodopsin pigment needs to be broken down, high intensity light is needed

73
Q

how do you estimate population from mark, release,recapture..

A
  1. Capture sample, mark and release;
  2. Appropriate method of marking which does not harm organism
    E.g. attaching a tag / paint / marker.
  3. Take second sample and count marked organisms;
  4. EQUATION
73
Q

what needs to be mentioned when talking about why a tumour will form

A
  • methylation of/actylation….
  • mutation in that gene
  • more/less transcription of gene
  • uncontrolled cell division
74
Q

Describe how to measure distribution of plant species from 1 point to another

A
  1. Transect / tape measure (from one side to the other);
  2. Place quadrats at regular intervals along the line;
  3. Count plants percentage cover / abundance scale in the quadrats
    Use several transects;
75
Q

when talking about transcets / quadrats what should you mension

A
  • use many quadrats + use many transects
76
Q

define population:

A

organisms of one species in an ecosystem / habitat / area;

77
Q

define community:

A

organisms of all species / all populations in an
ecosystem / habitat / area

78
Q

what is intraspecific competition

A

competition for food and resources within a species

79
Q

what is interspecific competition

A

competition for food and resources between different species

80
Q

what is needed for mark,release and recap to be valid

A
  • No immigration / migration
  • No reproduction or death/ very few
  • Marking does not influence behaviour e.g. increase vulnerability
    to predation
  • Sample population large enough
  • individuals from the first capture distrubuted evenly
81
Q

when talking abt a process with a location…

A

say the location just in case

82
Q

in genetic Qs becareful if they ask for …

A

ratio or No of each phenotype

83
Q

when you talk about application of selection pressure mention

A
  • type of selection
  • it starts with mutation
  • allele frequency
  • survival and reproducing
84
Q

when a gene is sex linked and common in men, mention

A

it is on the X chromosome

85
Q

how do you figure out the degrees of freedom

A

categories - one

86
Q

when conditoins remain constant over a long period of time what selection occurs

A

stabilising

87
Q

why do we use logs to plot graphs for bacteria

A

large range/difference / increase in numbers…

88
Q

what is secondary succession

A

succession where land presiously supported life but stopped, maybe due to wild fire.
steps of succession are the same but happen faster as it has the - nutrients to sustain life in soil and is not as hostile as barren land
- there is likely be plants and animals nearby..

89
Q

when you mention nutrients..

A

NAME THEM E.G. GLUCOSE OR PROTEINS

90
Q

what are the adaptations of slow twitch muscles

A
  • lots of mitochondria
  • rich blood suppply as they are optimised for aerobic resp
  • large store of myoglobin
91
Q

what are the adaptations of fast twitch muscles

A
  • store of glycogen
  • lots of phosphocreatine to make ATP in anaeobic conditions
  • high concentration of enzymes invovled in anaerobic respiration to rapidly make ATP
92
Q

draw out the muscle bands etc..

A
93
Q

draw phosphorus cycle

A
94
Q

oxygen plays what role in oxidative phosphorylation

A

final electron acceptor

95
Q

describe role of siRNA in regulating transcription

A
96
Q

how do you calculate dry mass

A
  • collect and dry all above ground plant material;
    (reject collect one / small sample / whole plants)
  • in an oven at or just below 100 oC;
  • weigh and repeat until constant mass;
96
Q

what does GP stand for

A

glycerate -3- phosphate

97
Q

what is chemiosmosis

A

the movement of H+ ions into the thylakoid via ETC and out via atp synthase ( down electrochemical gradient)

98
Q

whta is used to make IPS

A

adult somatic cells

BIOLOGY (4 decks)

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