Medicine on the Western Front Flashcards
The First battle of Ypres
-In Autumn 1914, the Germans launched an attack on the British positions to the east and north east of Ypres.
-The British prevented their advance towards the sea but lost over 50,000 troops from 12 October to 11 November.
-The British held on to Ypres meaning they controlled Channel ports so that supplies and reinforcements could be provided.
The use of mines at Hill 60
-Hill 60 was a man made hill which the Germans had captured in December 1914; giving them a strategic advantage in the area.
-In April 1915, the British used a method of offensive mining. This involved tunnelling under the hill and placing 5 mines in the tunnels.
-When the mines exploded, they blew the top off Hill 60 allowing the British to take this strategically important position.
The Second Battle of Ypres
-As soon as the battle for Hill 60 was finished, the Second Battle of Ypres began. It took place as a sequence of battles from 22 April to 25 May 1915.
-It was during this battle that the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time.
-By the end of the battle, British losses totalled around 59,000 men and the Germans had moved two miles closer towards Ypres on the eastern side of the salient.
The aim and tactics of the Battle of the Somme
Aim- take pressure of the French at Verdun and break through German lines.
Tactics- 1 week of constant shelling to destroy German trenches and barbed wire followed by an all out assault.
Creeping barrage was used to shell the Germans just ahead of the British assault. Tanks were used to support these troops.
The Results of the Battle of the Somme
-The shelling had warned the Germans and they prepared themselves in very well built dugouts and bunkers.- many were barely damaged at all.
-The shells had churned up the ground making it more difficult to advance and many had failed to explode at all.
-The Germans were able to simply climb back into their trenches and load their machine guns. After 5 months and little ground gained, the casualties were enormous.
Casualties at the Battle of the Somme
-The British launched their attack on the 1st of July 1916. On the first day, British casualties were over 57,000 with deaths totalling 20,000.
-By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November 1916, it is estimated that the British had suffered over 400,000 casualties and the Germans 450,000.
-New tactics and weapons contributed to the casualty rate. For example, the use of creeping barrage warned the Germans of the British assault and the first use of tanks had many technical problems.
The Use of Tunnels, Caves and Quarries at Arras
-In 1916, the British decided to link the existing tunnels, caves and quarries to create an underground network around Arras to act as shelters against German attacks and enable safe, underground movement.
-The work was carried out by Tunnelling Companies from Britain and new Zealand. in total, they dug more than 2.5 miles of tunnels in 5 months.
-Up to 25,000 men could be stationed in the tunnels which contained electric lights, running water, a light railway system and a fully functioning hospital.
The Battle of Arras
-In April 1917, 24,000 men who had been hiding in tunnels near the German trenches attacked.
-The aim was to break through the German line which in the first few days, appeared to have been achieved as the British advanced 8 miles.
-However, as the advance slowed, no further progress was made. By the end of the offensive in May, there were nearly 160,000 British and Canadian casualties.
The Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)
-The purpose of this battle was to break out of the Ypres salient. The British wanted to remove the German advantage of having the high ground.
-Throughout June, the British had prepared for the main attack at the battle of Messines where they had pushed the Germans off the ridge that formed part of the salient which they had occupied since October 1914.
-The British launched their attack on 31 July marching east from Ypres towards Passchendaele. They were initially successful advancing 2 miles on the first day.
Problems Faced at The Battle of Passchendaele
-Soon after the battle began, the weather turned to rain and the ground became waterlogged- so much so that men and horses would drown in it.
-Passchendaele left craters everywhere and destroyed many roads, making it more difficult to get the wounded away from the front line.
-The farmland soil was full of bacteria from fertiliser making infections more likely.
-The campaign lasted until November by which time the British had moved the edge of the salient back 7 miles but suffered an estimated 245,000 casualties.
The Development of Trenches
-The very first trenches of WW1 were simple defences against the enemy. However they soon developed into a system and network of more advanced trenches stretching from the Channel to Switzerland.
-Trenches were not always organised and neat because of the fighting and weather conditions.
-They were often designed for defence, helped by barbed wire and machine guns- it was much more difficult to attack an enemy trench than defend it.
Medical Problems Caused by Trenches
-Collecting the injured was dangerous and difficult due to craters and uneven terrain.
-Trenches were extremely crowded so moving around was slow and difficult.
-Soldiers often experienced Shell Shock from the trench experience so only spent 15% of their time there.
-45% of time was spent away from trenches, 30% in reserve trenches and 10% in the support lines.
Layout of Trenches
Communication Trenches- connected the front line trench to support and reserve trenches. Helped to transport soldiers, equipment and supplies.
Support Trench- about 80 metres behind the front line trench and where troops would retreat to if the front line trench came under attack.
Reserve Trench- at least 100 metres behind the support trench and where reserve troops could be mobilised for a counter attack if the front line trench was captured.
Dugouts- holes dug into the sides of trenches where soldiers could take protective cover when needed.
Zig Zag Pattern- limited the damage of exploding shells and made it harder for the enemy to move along it if it was captured.
Saps- short trenches dug out into no man’s land to spy on the enemy.
Structure of Trenches
Duck Boards- placed at the bottom of trenches to keep soldiers out of the mud.
Sandbags and Revetting- used to strengthen the trench and prevent it from collapsing, which was common.
Parapets- banks of earth and sandbags built up in front of trenches to protect soldiers when firing their rifles.
Fire Step- a ledge used to stand on when firing.
Trenches were often 2.5 metres deep and wide enough for 2 soldiers to pass each other at once.
Problems of Transport and Communications
-The constant shelling and type of terrain that soldiers were fighting on left the landscape full of craters and holes and destroyed many roads.
-This led to major problems in transporting injured men away from the front line.
-Before the war, many battlefields had been used as farmland and the use of fertiliser was extensive. this meant there was a lot of bacteria in the soil that could lead to infected wounds.
Stretcher Bearers
-Men who had been injured needed to be moved away from the front line in stages, as soon as their condition was stable enough.
-Stretcher bearers carried away the large numbers of wounded from the front line during the day and night.
-An official bearer group was to be made up of 6 men but there were rarely enough men so often 2-3 men were around to carry a stretcher.
-Stretcher bearers were exposed to shelling and gunfire. They had to overcome the awful terrain made worse by low visibility at night and a tight trench system.
Horse-drawn Ambulances
-When the British first entered the war in France, it was decided not to send motor ambulances with them.
-This was a mistake as horse-drawn ambulances could not cope with the large number of casualties. Soldiers would be left to die or taken prisoner by the Germans.
-The horse-drawn ambulances were not very secure. Men who were transported in these wagons were shaken around often making their injuries worse.
-In worse terrain, 6 horses rather than the usual 2 pulled the ambulance wagons.
Motor Ambulances
-The Times newspaper ran a public appeal for donations. By October 1914, after only 3 weeks, the appeal had raised enough money to buy 512 ambulance wagons.
-The new ambulances would make transporting wounded soldiers much easier and would prevent injuries from being made worse by the move.
-The first ambulances were sent to The Western Front in October 1914 as a result of the work of the Red Cross.
-However, motor vehicles could not operate in much if the muddy terrain of the front line so horse-drawn wagons continued to be used throughout the war.
Train Ambulances
-Train ambulances could transport hundreds of men in their final stage of their evacuation to the Base Hospitals.
-At first, the RAMC had to use French good trains. However, by November 1914, the first specially designed train ambulances arrived in France.
-Train ambulances had spaces for stretchers fitted down both sides of carriages. Some later trains even contained operating theatres.
There were concerns that the number of wounded being moved on the railways were damaging the war effort
-This is because they contributed to too many trains moving around the rail network of Northern France and Belgium
Barge and Ship Ambulances
-Wounded men might also be transported by canal in the final stage of evacuation to the Base Hospitals on the French coast.
-The concern that the large number of train ambulances was damaging the war effort led to canal barges being used to transport the wounded to Base Hospitals.
-Although the journey was slow, it was comfortable, and some of the wounded bypassed the Base Hospitals to be transferred directly onto ships that were transporting wounded men back to Britain.
The Nature of Rifle Wounds
-Rifles could fire accurately up to 500m but lacked the speed of machine guns. They were designed with a more pointed shape to drive deeper into the body.
-Bullets penetrated the body along with soil and fragments of clothing leading to infections like gas gangrene or tetanus.
-Bullets were found to have been responsible for 39% of wounds.
-Rifle wounds were treated by amputation or surgery and prevented by the introduction of the steel helmet. Anti tetanus injections were also given to reduce infection.
The Nature of Machine Gun Wounds
-Machine guns could fire 450 rounds a minute and often used for defence.
-Their bullets could break major bones and pierce vital organs such as the liver and kidneys.
-If a shot in the leg, there was a 20% survival rate.
The Nature of Artillery Wounds.
-When a shell exploded, it could kill or injure a soldier immediately.
-A shell explosion also scattered shrapnel which travelled at fast speeds over a wide area. This meant anyone in the way of the shrapnel was likely to be wounded.
-Artillery shells removed limbs and inflicted major internal damage leading to rapid blood loss.
-About 60% of injuries were to arms and legs.
The Nature of Shrapnel Wounds
-Like bullets, shrapnel penetrated the body and took with soil filled with fertilisers and clothing which could lead to infection.
-Shrapnel caused a ‘blast impact’. After hitting the body, it set of an effect which damaged tissue and bones around the initial impact.
-The impact of tetanus was reduced by the introduction of an anti tetanus injection from the end of 1914. However, there was no cure for gangrene.
The Brodie Helmet
-At the start of the war, a soft cap was worn. To protect against injuries, a trial using the Brodie helmet was carried out in 1915.
-The Brodie helmet was made from steel and had a strap to prevent it being thrown off the head in an explosion.
-It is estimated that it reduced fatal head wounds by 80% so was then provided to all soldiers fighting on the Western Front.
The Nature of Gas Attacks
-Gas attacks caused great panic and fear as it was a new form of warfare.
-They caused headaches and thirst however, to drink would also cause instant death.
-Soldiers also felt great pain in their stomach and lungs and coughed up a green froth.
-However, gas attacks were not a major cause of death with only 6,000 British troops dying as a result of them.
-To prevent the gas from affecting them soldiers would cover their mouths with a urine soaked rag. Troops were eventually given formal gas masks/
Chlorine Gas
-First used by the Germans at the Second Battle of Ypres, chlorine gas led to death by suffocation
-The medical services had no experience dealing with gas attacks so had to experiment with treatments.
-Gas masks were provided to all British troops in July 1915.
-Before this soldiers had soaked cotton pads with urine and pressed them to their faces to help stop the gas entering their lungs.
-The British retaliated with their own gas attack later in 1915 at the Battle of Loos. However, the wind changed direction and the gas blew back on the British lines.
Phosgene Gas
-First used at the end of 1915 near Ypres.
-Its effects were similar to those of chlorine but it was faster acting killing an exposed person in 2 days.
Mustard Gas
-First used in 1917 by the Germans.
-It was an odourless gas which worked within 12 hours.
-It caused internal blisters and could pass through clothing to burn the skin
Symptoms of Trench Foot.
-Painful swelling of the feet caused by standing in cold mud and water.
-In the second stage of trench foot, gangrene set in.
