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history > Medicine > Flashcards

Medicine Flashcards

1
Q

when was the Crimean war

A

1853-1556

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2
Q

what was Florence Nightingale’s main views

A

training of nurses, design of the hospital

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3
Q

What did Florence Nightingale demand

A

no dirt near patients, nurses need to be organised, clear bedding and good meals, guarantees to reduce death rate from 40% to 2%

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4
Q

What did Florence Nightingale want the hospitals to look like

A

improved ventilation, open plan hospital, more professional nurses, no pollution

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5
Q

What was ‘Notes On Nursing’ about

A

training of nurses and making it a proper profession

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6
Q

When was ‘Notes On Nursing’ written

A

1859

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7
Q

what did Florence Nightingale do

A

set up Nightingale school in 1860, promoted pavilion style hospitals, rigorous training turned it into a profession, recommended materials for hospitals that can be easily cleaned

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8
Q

How did hospitals change by 1990

A

split up infectious patients, cleanliness became important, doctors became common, trained nurses lived in nearby houses, became places where sick were treated

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9
Q

in 1799 what did Humphrey Davey discover

A

nitrous oxide

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10
Q

in 1846 what did William Morton discover

A

Ether which was a longer lasting anaesthetic

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11
Q

what did James Simpson discover

A

Chloroform which was a better anaesthetic than Ether

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12
Q

How was Chloroform experimented

A

inhaling various vapours from various chemicals

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13
Q

Positives of Chloroform

A

Queen Victoria used in labour in 1853, John Snow developed an inhaler that regulated the dosage and reduced deaths

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14
Q

When did John Snow develop the inhaler

A

1848

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15
Q

negatives of chloroform

A

difficult to get dosage correct, affected the heart

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16
Q

Why did people oppose the idea of anaesthetics

A

interfered with Gods plan, weren’t fully understood, number of deaths after operation using anaesthetics increased

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17
Q

How did Joseph Lister try to reduce death rate from infections from anaesthetics

A

he became interested in Pasteur’s work the idea of microbes were responsible for infection of a wound

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18
Q

When was carbolic acid discovered and what did it do

A

1864, used in sewage works in Carlisle to kill parasites

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19
Q

carbolic acid on James Greenlee

A

1865 testes his ideas on 11 year old boy who had compound fracture on leg, has an open wound and would normally lead to death, Lister soaked bandages in carbolic acid and watched wound, no sign of pus or infection, after 6 weeks fracture healed and wound

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20
Q

3 ways carbolic acid was used to stop spread of infection

A

clean wounds, clean equipment, bandages

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21
Q

what happened in 1867 with carbolic acid

A

his wards had been free from sepsis for 9 month

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22
Q

what happened in 1877 with carbolic acid

A

Lister became Professor of surgery at Kings College hospital, carried out an operation on a kneecap under anaesthetic conditions, operation became widely publicised

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23
Q

Problems with silk stitches and carbolic acid

A

silk didn’t absorb carbolic acid, thread had to be left dangling so stitches could be removed

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24
Q

Solutions to problems with stitches and carbolic acid

A

introduced catgut which could be sterilised, developed catgut that would dissolve after several days in the body

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25
Q

what does enlightenment mean

A

movement stressing the importance reason and critical re-evaluation of existing ideas and social institutions

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26
Q

what does renaissance mean

A

the period of this revival, roughly the 14th through the 16th century, marking the transition from Medieval to modern times, a rebirth

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27
Q

What does reformation mean

A

the action of process of reforming an institution or practice

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28
Q

6 key changes in Renaissance period

A

invention of new weapons led to soldiers getting new wounds, revival of learning universities established schools of medicine, artists revolutionised painting making us see body in more detail, governments were rich people could afford doctors, Columbus discovered america so new food and medicine were brought back, , printing press made new ideas widespread

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29
Q

Impact of the printing press

A

fast flow of information, books could be read by many people, motivated people to read, educated population, books printed in other languages, encouraged spread of ideas

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30
Q

impact of royal society

A

more knowledge of anatomy, met weekly to discuss new ideas, spread books and articles, people weren’t afraid to challenge new ideas, new ideas founded, important to be educated, became knowledgeable in science and art.

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31
Q

what did people think caused disease in medieval times

A

god, imbalance in the 4 humours, astrology, miasmus, star signs

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32
Q

what did Vesalius say

A

that medical students should perform dissections

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33
Q

impact of Vesalius’ discoveries

A

produced anatomical charts, performed dissections, proved Galen wrong about astrology, Galen was forced to dissect animals-went against religion, challenged Galen’s ideas about humans as he said they are different to humans

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34
Q

what did william harvey discover

A

how blood circulated around the body

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35
Q

impact of William Harvey’s discoveries

A

he used scientific methods, proves Galen wrong about the circulation of blood.

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36
Q

what did William Harvey believe

A

only veins carry blood, blood is not constantly manufactured by the liver and is not used up as it moves around body, blood must go through tiny blood vessels to move it from the arteries to the veins

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37
Q

why did technology affect Harvey’s ideas

A

limited technology meant microscopes were not powerful enough to prove his theory correct and it was not until much later that microscopes could do this

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38
Q

why was Harvey’s work limited because his work was based on physiology rather than causes

A

his work was not seen as particularly relevant because of this to the physicians and the existing problems about disease

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39
Q

why was Harvey’s work limited because people were reluctant to change their views about treatment and illness

A

doctors still based training on Galens ideas and doctors did not carry out dissections,

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40
Q

Progress in renaissance period withVersailius

A

Vesalius appointed errors in Galens work, Galen said we have 5 lobes in liver but we have 2, jaw bone is made from 1 bone not 2, breast bone has 3 parts not 7, blood does not flow through holes in septum, opened Galens work to questioning

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41
Q

limitations in renaissance with Versalius

A

church refused to accept galen had made any errors, doctors refused art in dissections and said art had no place in science, nobody was healthier as a result of versailius’ work, many more discoveries were needed before people would live longer

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42
Q

progress in Renaissance with Thomas Sydenham

A

focused on observation evidence and keeping records more accurate, identified specific diseases and created treatments, insisted doctors visited patients rather than other way round, published a book which became standard textbook for 2 centuries

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43
Q

limitations in renaissance with thomas sydenham

A

his clinical description didn’t make him popular with colleagues, he rejected using microscopes on religious grounds, still believed in the 4 humours

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44
Q

when was the germ theory founded

A

1861

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45
Q

what does vaccine mean

A

the administration of antigenic material to stimulate an individuals immune system to develop immunity, they can prevent disease.

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46
Q

what does immune mean

A

resistant to a particular infection

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47
Q

what does inoculation mean

A

taking a vaccine as a precaution against contracting a disease

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48
Q

problems with inoculation

A

not everyone could afford to have it done and it wasn’t always effective

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49
Q

what happened 14th May 1796 with Jenner

A

he took some cowpox from a blister on the arm of Sarah Nelmes and inserted it into cuts on James Phipps arm

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50
Q

what happened on 1st July 1796 with Jenner

A

he inoculated him with smallpox but no disease followed

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51
Q

What happened with Jenner and smallpox after inoculating James Phipps

A

several months later he tried again and didn’t develop t but to make sure he vaccinated another 23 people including his 11 month old son

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52
Q

what happened in 1798 with Jenner and Smallpox

A

he decided to publish his ideas however the royal society refused to publish so he had to pay to do it himself

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53
Q

What happened in 1802 with Jenner and Smallpox

A

he was awarded 10,000 dollars for his work

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54
Q

positives of Jenner’s vaccination

A

first time a disease could be safely be prevented, better than inoculation, willing to offer free vaccinations so all could have protection, inspired work of Koch and Pasteur, by 1980 smallpox was wiped out

55
Q

negatives of Jenner’s vaccination

A

couldn’t be replicated for other diseases, only after work of Pasteur and Koch could vaccination be developed, , many disliked because it was sometimes incorrectly applied and failed, both a breakthrough and dead end, limited effect until made compulsory in 1871, funding was necessary

56
Q

what did Pasteur’s germ theory experiments suggest

A

beer, wine and milk were going sour because of germs in the air

57
Q

what significant conclusion did Pasteur reveal from Germ theory

A

that microbes were the cause of disease

58
Q

why is the germ theory so significant

A

doctors finally knew the cause of disease in general

59
Q

what was one major set back of the germ theory

A

they didn’t know which microbe caused which disease

60
Q

what happened that made Pasteur investigate germ theory further

A

his daughter died and an outbreak of cholera

61
Q

what did Pasteur do to investigate germ theory further

A

took samples of air from a cholera ward

62
Q

What did Koch set out to do

A

find the specific microbe or bacterium causing an individual disease

63
Q

how did Koch investigate tuberculosis

A

staining the microbe causing the disease so it stood out under a microscope from other microbes

64
Q

what diseases were founded using Koch’s staining technique

A

1882 typhoid, 1883 cholera, 1886 pneumonia, 1887 meningitis, 1894 plague

65
Q

one limitation of Koch’s work

A

didn’t save lives on it’s own

66
Q

3 vaccines Jenner developed

A

anthrax, chicken cholera, rabies

67
Q

how did Pasteur create a vaccine for rabies

A

investigated rabies by testing vaccine on dogs, in 1885 Joesph Miester who had been bitten by a rabied dog was given 13 injections over a 2 week period and he survived

68
Q

positives of germ theory and identification of microbes

A

better trained doctor and nurses, more investment in science, higher life expectancy

69
Q

what were the 2 improvements in technology which assisted the development of DNA

A

electron microscopes, x rays

70
Q

what is crystallography

A

the science of determining the arrangement of atoms in solids

71
Q

3 things that DNA allowed scientists to identify

A

eye colour, hair colour, height

72
Q

what inherited conditions did the discovery of DNA allow scientists to discover

A

sickle cell ammonia, cystic fibrosis, downs syndrome

73
Q

2 people who worked together to investigate the stricture of DNA

A

Francis Crick = physicist

James Watson = chemist

74
Q

2 people who assisted Crick and Watson with DNA

A

Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin

75
Q

what did one of Franklin’s photographs suggest

A

that genes were arranged in a double helix structure

76
Q

what happened in 1953 with DNA

A

Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA

77
Q

What happened in 1990 with DNA

A

Human genome project led by Watson set out to map out all the genes in the 23 chromosomes in every cell in the body

78
Q

what happened in 2000 with DNA

A

the project involved hundreds of scientists working in 18 teams

79
Q

outcome of developing DNA

A

scientists have identified certain genes that pass on specific hereditary diseases/conditions

80
Q

what did galen believe in, in terms of religion

A

he believed in a soul and body parts had been created to work together

81
Q

who does lung cancer mainly affect

A

people over 40

82
Q

3 causes of lung cancer

A

smoking, lung tumours, radon gas

83
Q

what did british medical council introduce in 1950 and what did it show

A

aggressive advertising by tobacco companies and showed lung cancer was linked to cigarette smoking

84
Q

positives and negatives of transplants in lung cancer

A

can replace cancerous lungs with transplant from a healthy donor, it it fair to give them a new lung if they chose to smoke

85
Q

what happened in 2007 with smoking

A

banned in all work places

86
Q

what happened in 2015

A

smoking ban in workplaces was extened to cars carrying children under the age of 18

87
Q

another thing that happened in 2007 with smoking to do with legal age

A

buying tobacco was raised from 16 to 18

88
Q

who discovered x rays and when

A

wilhelm roentgen in 1895

89
Q

what was the role of x rays in early radiology departments

A

to locate a needle in a womans hand

90
Q

4 problems with x rays

A

health risks weren;t understood, machine contained fragile glass, took 90 mins to complete, big machines were immobile

91
Q

who did the first experiments on human to human blood transfusions

A

james blundell

92
Q

role of Karl Landsteiner

A

discovered blood groups so donor and patients could be matched

93
Q

what was the major problem with blood in transfusions

A

blood couldn’t be stored so it had to be used straight away

94
Q

role of RAMC

A

provided medical treatment to the wounded and sick whilst being responsible for keeping the men healthy

95
Q

role of FANY

A

the first womens voluntary organisation to send volunteers to the western front , helped by driving ambulances, driving supplies to the frontline, set up mobile bath units that bathed 40 men an hour

96
Q

4 stages of evacuation route

A

regimental aid post, dressing station, casulty clearing stations, base hospitals

97
Q

what happens at regimental aid post

A

located within 200 metres of frontline, give immediate care, couldnt deal with serious injuries

98
Q

what happened at dressing stations

A

provide protection from shelling, could only look after men for a week

99
Q

what happened at casulty clearing stations

A

7 miles away from front, close to railway, treated most critical injuries at front to stop gangrene infection so could send men back, had traige system

100
Q

what happened at base hospitals

A

situated near ports, had operating theatres, could treat up 2500 patients at once, most patients ent back to england from here

101
Q

what happened at Arras underground hospital

A

included waiting rooms, 700 spaces for stretchers, operating theatre, mortuary, electricity and water supply

102
Q

1914 first battle of ypres

A

germans attacked british positions, Britian kept ypres but lost 50,000 men. Germans surrounded the salient and kept brits on lower wetter ground

103
Q

hill 60 battle

A

april to may 1915 , germans used chlorine gas for first time , brits lost 59,000 men and the germans moved 2 miles closer to town of ypres

104
Q

the somme 1916

A

20,000 dead on first day, 57,000 casulties, first use of tanks, use of creeping barrage that moved towards the germans trench

105
Q

arras 1917

A

in april british advanced 8 miles into enemy terrtory however in may attack virtually stopped. used tunnels to prepare an attack on german line

106
Q

cambrai 1917

A

first large scale attack by british tanks, over 450 used, all land taken by british was lost, no artiliary bombardment was used which suprised germans.

107
Q

4 parts of trench system

A

communication, support, frontline, reserve

108
Q

use of support trench

A

80 metres behind frontline, troops would retreat if under attack, 10% of time here

109
Q

use of front line trench

A

where attacks were made, most dangerous aream 15% of soldiers time here

110
Q

use of reserve trench

A

100m behind support trench, where troops would be mobilised to counter attack enemy if they captured front line, 30% of time here

111
Q

use of communication trench

A

trenches that run between other trenches linking them together

112
Q

advantages of trench system

A

simple and cheap, easy to defend with few men, provided shelter and protection

113
Q

disadvantages of trench system

A

hard to attack due to no mans land, very dirty, winter flooding and frostbite

114
Q

what is the firebay

A

where troops did their shooting they would be protected by sandbags

115
Q

what is the duckboards

A

to prevent soldiers from standing in water, possibly preventing trench foot

116
Q

what is the firestep

A

allows the soldiers to fire towards the other trench, 2.5 metres deep

117
Q

what is the parapet

A

low protective wall

118
Q

what is the ammunition shelf

A

area in which ammo was kept near the firestep

119
Q

what is the dugout

A

area dug into side of the trench where men could take protective cover

120
Q

what is no mans land

A

dangerous land, men would be collected at night, destroyed terrain was muddy, contained stagnent water filled with craters with rotting corpses

121
Q

transportation using horse drawn ambulance wagons

A

could not cope with the number of wounded, shaky transport often made injuries worse, many men were left to die

122
Q

transportation using motor ambulances

A

the times appealed for donations, got enough money for 512 ambulances, oct 1914 first one was used, on bad terrain less effective so horses continued to be used

123
Q

transportation using train, barge and ship ambulances

A

some contained operating theatres , criticised for blocking supply routes so canals were used which were comfortable and slow

124
Q

what is trench foot

A

feet would swell, go numb, skin turns red and blue, lead to gangrene and amputation of limbs from standing in waterlogged trenches

125
Q

attempted solutions for trench foot

A

medical officers ordered soldiers to carry 3 pairs of socks and change twice a day, rub whale oil into their feet, attempts were made to pump out trenches and add duckboards

126
Q

what was trench fever

A

flu like symptoms with high temp, headache and ching muscles which was spread by lice, could be ill for up to month

127
Q

attempted solutions for trench fever

A

delosuing stations were set up on front, clothes were disinfected men were bathed and sprayed with chemicals, was a decline in numbers experiencing this

128
Q

what was shell shock

A

tiredness, headaches, nightmares, loss of speech, uncontrollable shaking, mental breakdown

129
Q

attempted solutions for shell shock

A

condition was not understood at the time so some soldiers who experienced it were accused of cowardice and were punished, some even shot

130
Q

what were some new wounds

A

shrapnel wounds led to amputation, head injuries led to brodie hats,

131
Q

what did chlorine gas do

A

caused death by suffocation, before gas masks soldiers soaked pads in urine and put on faces

132
Q

what did phosgene do

A

faster acting than chlorine, killed an exposed person in 2 days

133
Q

what did mustard gas do

A

odourless gas that worked within 12 hours, caused internal and external blisters and could pass through clothing to burn skin

134
Q

what was the solution to new gas attacks

A

soldiers were given gas masks from july 1915

history (3 decks)

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