Medicine Flashcards
In what year did Jenner develop the smallpox vaccination?
1798
What method of preventing disease did vaccination improve upon?
Inoculation
What disease did Jenner inject James Phipps with to prevent him from getting smallpox?
Cowpox
How many more experiments did Jenner carry out?
23
Give two reasons Jenner faced opposition
- He couldn’t prove it
2. People thought they’d turn into a cow
In what year did the British government make the vaccination compulsory?
1850
Which theory did the GT prove wrong in 1861?
Spontaneous generation
What job did Pasteur do and in which country?
He was a chemist in France
In what year did Koch prove that specific germs cause specific disease?
1876
Name 3 germs Koch discovered
TB, Cholera and Anthrax
Name 3 vaccines that Pasteur developed
Chicken cholera, Rabies and Anthrax
In what year did Nightingale go out to the Crimea?
1850’s
What changes did Nightingale make to the wards in the Crimea?
Ventilation & Sanitation
What were the names of Nightingales 2 books that turned nursing into a profession?
Notes on nursing & Notes on hospitals
By 1901 there were 68,000 trained nurses and in 1850 there had been none. True or False?
True
What attitude did the government have in this time period?
Liberal attitude
In what year did Cholera hit England?
1830’s
Who wrote the report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Classes?
Chadwick
When was the 1st Public Health Act and what was wrong with it?
1848, It wasn’t compulsory
What did the 1st Public Health Act recommend?
Cleaning streets
Who discovered what was causing Cholera in Broad street and in what year?
Snow, 1854
Who built London’s sewer system?
Bazeljette
When was the Great Stink?
1858
In what year were some working class men given the right to vote?
1860’s
When was the 2nd Public Health Act passed and how was it different?
1875, It was compulsory
In what year did the Black Death reach Britain?
1348
When was Harvey’s book released?
1628
When was Vesalius’ book released?
1543
When did the first vaccinations take place?
1796
What year were germs first identified as causing disease?
1861
When were the first contact lenses introduced?
1887
What year was the first arrival of Cholera?
1831
What year did Jenner’s vaccination take place?
1896
What year was Pasteur’s germ theory?
1861
What year was Koch’s theory?
1875
When was the first womb transplant?
2011
When was the first record of aids?
1980
What were the main factors?
Wealth War Individuals Religion Government Chance Communications Science & technology
What was dual healing?
Ancient period, two approaches to medicine ran along side one another.
What was the Theory of opposites?
If you had a cold people believed that heat would cure you so in medicine they would add something like a chili. If you had a disease caused by heat they would add something cool like a cucumber.
What did the local shop keepers believe would cure you?
A special medalien/necklace would connect with the Gods and cure people.
What did barber surgeons do to help try and heal people?
Basic surgery such as bleeding, removing surface tumors, sewing up wounds and making splints for broken bones.
What were the four humors and what season did each humor relate to?
Blood - wet season
Phlegm - cold season
Black bile - dry season
Yellow bile - hot season
What did people believe the causes for the Black Death was?
- The four humors
- God
- Miasma
- Movement of the planets
- Outsiders
- Brightly coloured clothing (seen as sinful)
What did people believe could treat the Black Death?
- Holy charms
- Whipping to get rid of sins
- Praying
- Blood letting
- Herbs
- Apothecaries
What did people do to prevent the Black Death?
- Stopped people from entering the village
- Isolation
- Burying the dead
- Flagellation
- Carrying charms
- Burning barrels of tar
- Smelling even worse smells
Before the work of Vesalius what did doctors believe?
Doctors believed that Galen had given a complete and fully correct description of the anatomy .
What did Galen believe the veins did?
He believed that the veins carried blood through the body, blood passed from one side to the other.
How did Vesalius prove Galen wrong?
He proved that the human jaw is made from one bone not two.
The breast bone had three parts not seven
Blood does not flow into the heart through invisible holes through the septum
How did Harvey prove Galen wrong?
He proved that the heart acts as a pump, pumping blood around the body.
How did Vesalius do everything he did?
- He was inventive and determined
- He believed it was vital to ask questions and challenge traditional ideas
How did Harvey do everything he did?
- He repeated experiments and went over every detail
- He also read the work of the doctors and used their work to build up his theory
What was the impact of Vesalius’ work?
- Students crowd round the body to see what Vesalius is doing rather than listening to Galen.
- Galen and other Greek doctors are shown at the same level as Vesalius, not higher up as if superior.
What was the impact of Harvey’s work?
- Harvey provided more evidence for the importance of disection and experiments.
- his discoveries left many unanswered questions, which encouraged further experiments
What was Vesalius’ text book called?
The fabric of the human body
1843
What is Cholera?
- Spread through dirty water a food that had been contaminated with sewage
- Symptons include sickness and diarrhoea
- Dies from dehydration and often within 24 hours. 2/3 people die
What is Diptheria?
- Spread through tiny droplets of water when coughing and sneezing or through any type of contact
- bleeding and sometimes paralysis; throat can leave to death 1/10 die
What is Smallpox?
- Spread by touch, or through tiny droplets when coughing or sneezing
- A rash turns into blisters filled with puss. Becomes crusted and falls off leaving deep scars.
- 1/3 die from infection puss.
What is Tuberculosis (TB)?
- Spread through tiny droplets when coughing or sneezing
- Coughing becomes constant
- Brings up blood
- Chest pains
- Severe weight loss
- 1/2 die
What is Typhoid?
- Spread through dirty food and water, contaminated by sewage or food infected by flies
- Headaches, fever, constipation and then severe diarrhoea
- 1/3 died, especially old, young and malnourished
James Simpson
- The first man to be knighted for services to medicine
- Discovered anaesthetics
- Young surgeon
Why did Simpson face opposition?
The victorians were very religious and some people felt that pain relief was interfering with God’s plan.
Some doctors thought it was easier for the patient to die.
Edwin Chadwick
- Cleaner towns and cities would lead to less disease and better health
- Average life of a child was 17 years
- The sanitary conditions of the labouring population (1842)
1848 Public health act
- A national board of health was to be set up
- Not compulsory
- Very first Public health act
Who was John Snow?
A son of a farm labourer. He was apprenticed to a surgeon at 14. He became a pioneer in surgery and public health.
Louis Pasteur
- Found micros not present in normal wine
- Boiling wine
- What effect it was having on people
- Pasteurization
- Germ Theory 1861
- University scientist
- French chemist
- Suffered a stroke in 1868
Robert Koch
- Surgeon in the war
- Investigated anthrax
- Humble medic but had ambitions
- Keen to be better then Pasteur
- Got help from local butcher
- Miasma theory was replaced with Germ Theory
- German doctor
- Died in 1910
1875 Public Health Act
- Compulsory for local councils to improve sewers and drainage, provide fresh water supplies
- Compulsory to appoint medical officers and sanitary inspectors to inspect health facilities
- Other laws improved the standards of housing stopped the pollution of rivers (from which people get water)
Where did Semmelweiss work?
Maternity unit
What was ‘Childhood fever’?
Swollen abdomen
What was ‘The great mystery’ that Semmelweiss investigated?
What had killed the mothers
What was Semmelweiss’ theory?
Doctors carried death on their hands
What procedures did Semmelweiss put in place to reduce the risk of infection?
Told people to wash their hands
Why did Semmelweiss face so much opposition to such a simple measure?
He could prove it
What was a Magic Bullet?
A chemical that gets injected into the body and goes directly to the deadly disease.
The liberal reforms -
Provision of free school meals
1906 but wasn’t compulsory till 1914
The liberal reforms -
School medical service
1907
The liberal reforms -
Old age pensions only given at 70
1908
The liberal reforms -
Back to back housing banned new regulations
1909
The liberal reforms -
National insurance act (free medical treatment for wage earner)
1911
When was the NHS act passed?
1946
When did the NHS act start?
1948
Why was the NHS set up?
- The government provided free medical treatment to keep people well for the war effort
- People wanted a better society and access to health care after WW11
- The Beveridge report identified disease for the government to deal with after the war.
- The labour party (bevan) promised to carry out all of Beveridge’s ideas if elected.
What disease did the first magic bullet cure?
Syphilis
What year was the first magic bullet discovered?
1909
How did Behring help the discovery of the first magic bullet?
isolated antitoxins
What is a magic bullet?
chemical and dye to target multiple discoveries
What was the difference between the first and second magic bullet?
second killed multiple diseases
In what year was the second magic bullet discovered?
1932
What was the first magic bullet called?
salvarson 606
What disease was Gerhard Domagk trying to cure in with the 2nd magic bullet?
blood poisoning
Why was the first magic bullet important?
first cure and inspired the second
Who was the first person to working on developing penicillin?
Alexander Flemming
In what year was penicillin discovered?
1928
Why did penicillin get developed in the 1920s?
lack of funding
Who funded the mass production of penicillin?
American government
What profession was the patient that received penicillin for 3 days?
policeman
What was penicillin tested on before human patients?
mice
What are the names of the two scientists who developed penicillin?
Florey and Chain
What was the name given to drugs that stop infection caused by bacteria?
antibiotics
In what year was DNA discovered and which people discovered it?
1953, Watson, Crick and Franklin
What improved technology helped DNA discovery?
X-ray photography
What did the human genome project do?
mapped DNA
What reforms did the liberal government pass between 1906-11?
old people pensions and free school meals
When was the NHS set up and by whom?
1948, Nightingale
Name 3 developments in technology for diagnosis and treatment in hospitals
endoscope, gene therapy and radio therapy
Why was there so much fighting in the Battle of Ypres in 1915?
- stood in the docks in calais and dunkirk
- made them vunerable
- direct route to channel ridge of high grounds
What was so difficult about fighting conditions in the Battle of Ypres?
- protected by barbed wire
- flat muddy land
- heavy soil that became water logged and flooded especially when under shell fire
What was so difficult about fighting conditions at Hill 60?
- high advantage point and Germans could fly directly over
- man made hill
Which new weapons were used at Ypres in 1915?
- gas attack
- poison gas
How did the Battle of the Somme put great pressure on medical resources?
- huge casualty rates
- bristol miletary planners expected 10,000 casualties each day
- first day British army suffered over 60,000 casualties
- overall there were 400,000 allie casualties and 450,000 German casualties
Which new weapons were used at Cambrai in 1917?
- tanks
- 450 tanks used against the German front line
- surprise attack
- first big scale tank attack
- British lost all land
What was unusual about what took place underneath Arras?
- tunnels were also used as shelters against artillery fire
- happened before battle began
- a network of tunnels were built
- new tunnels joined up with the ancient tunnels and quarries under the city
- running water and supplies
- a hospital large enough for 700 beds and operating theaters
- soldiers from New Zeland and some from North England
What was Terrain?
The type of land you were on
What were the communication trenches?
linked all three rows of trenches together
What was the reserve tench?
where the troops could be stationed for counter attack
What were dugouts?
holes in the side of the trench for troops to take over
What was the support trench?
where troops would retreat to the front line
What was the frontline trench?
where attacks were launched
15% of time spent there
What injuries did rifles cause?
- bayonet wounds
- gunshot wounds
- amputations
What injuries did machine guns cause?
- breaks major bones
- pierced vital organs 20% chance of survival
What injuries did artillery cause?
- removed limbs
- internal damage leading to blood loss
What injuries did shrapnel cause?
- blood loss
- infection
- head injuries early in the war
- wounds to eyes, nose, mouth and jaw
How was trench fever caused?
lice ‘grey backs’
Why did trench fever cause problems?
- it reduced the number of men able to fight
- included severe headaches, shivering and reoccurring pain
- made men unfit for fighting
How was trench fever treated/prevented?
- disinfecting clothing
- bath houses
- louse-repellent gel
How was trench foot caused?
- water log
- tight boots (restricted blood flow)
Why did trench foot cause problems?
- could lead to gangrene (dead flesh) which spread around the bodies leading to amputation
- army struggled to deal with the amount of soldiers being taken our of action
How was trench foot treated/prevented?
- three pairs of socks
- changed socks twice a day
- rubbed whale oil into their feet
How was NYD.N. (shellshock) caused?
- psychological reactions to the devastating nature of warfare
Why did shell shock cause problems?
- army commanders feared it would be contagious and fear would be spread to others
- at least 80,000 cases of shell shock were recorded
- soldiers were temporarily taken out of action
How was shell shock treated/prevented?
- treated in France and were give rest, food and talks
- however some soldiers were very harshly treated and accused of cowardness and never recovered
What was a stretcher bearer?
- they carried out medical supplies - bandages and morphine for pain
- took 4 men to carry a stretcher
What was a regimental aid post (RAP)?
- very close to the front line
- could be dug out in trenches, inside ruined buildings or simply behind a wall
What was a motor ambulance?
- a large medical unit with officers, support staff and from 1915 some nurses
- dressing stations were set up in tents or derelict buildings to receive the wounded from RAP
What was the casualty clearing station (CCS)?
- the first large well equipped medical facility the wounded would see
- there were usually 7 doctors with nursing and other staff
- contained operating theaters, x-ray machines and wards with beds for around 50 men
What was a base hospital?
- Usually civilian hospitals or large converted buildings near railways so patients could be moved quickly
- they had operating theaters, laboratories, x-ray departments and some specialist centers for treating
What was a royal army medical corps (RAMC)?
- organised and provided medical care
- responsible for keeping men healthy through good sanitation as well as treating the wounded and sick
What was first aid nursing yeomanry (FANY)?
- reveals the changes brought by the nature and site of the war
- founded in 1907 by a soldier who had been wounded in Sudan in Africa
What problem did treating wounds and infections tackle?
- reduced amount of deaths in war
- began to solve the problem of infection in surgical wounds
What was the improvement of treating wounds and infections?
- operating theaters were bacteria free zones
- reduced gas gangrene and tetanus
What was the benefits of treating wounds and infections?
- made sure all shell and bullet fragments and shrapnel were removed
- cut out all tissues and dead surroundings of the wound that might become infected
What did mobile x-ray machines tackle?
- doctors could identify where the shrapnel was to make surgery quicker
What did mobile x-ray machines improve?
- could be transferred to base hospitals
What were the benefits of using a mobile x-ray machine?
- could identify shrapnel and make surgery quicker
What did blood transfusions and the storage of blood tackle?
- blood clotting
What did blood transfusions and the storage of blood improve?
- sodium citrate prevents clotting
- led to blood banks
What were the benefits of blood transfusions and the storage of blood?
- group 0 was provided because it could be used with every blood group
What problem did plastic surgery tackle?
facial injuries (due to shrapnel shells) and gun wounds.
What was the improvement of plastic surgery?
Use of skin grafts, taking skin from another part of the patients body and grafting onto the area of the wound.
What were the benefits of plastic surgery?
- repaired facial injuries which meant that people felt better about themselves
What problem did brain surgery tackle?
The number of head injuries
What was the improvement of brain surgery?
- the number of injuries pushed surgeons to try new idea
- stopped internal bleeding
What were the benefits of brain surgery?
- pushed surgeons to try new ideas
What problem did the thomas splint tackle?
- helped fractured bones
- blood loss
- stopped bones grinding together
What was the improvement of the thomas splint?
- pulled the leg lengthways
- stopped the bones grinding
- stopped blood loss
What were the benefits of the thomas splint?
- kept the patient alive before and after operation
- reduced deaths from blood loss
What was bloodletting?
The most common treatment for an imbalance of the four humours. Either done by;
- cutting a vein
- using leeches
- cupping
What was purging?
Another treatment used to re-balance the four humours. Either involved;
- making a patient vomit
- going to the toilet to remove food from the body
What were the religious and supernatural methods to prevent disease?
- living a Christian life
- chanting incantations
- self punishment
- carrying lucky charms
What were the rational methods to prevent disease?
- bathing and washing
- exercising
- not overeating
- bleeding and purging
- purifying air
- keeping streets clean
When was the first serious outbreak of The Great Plague in England?
1665
What were the causes of The Great Plague?
- miasma was the most common belief by far
- far fewer people believed it was the 4 humours
- people knew disease could be passed from person to person
What was used to treat The Great Plague?
- herbal remedies
- ‘quack doctors’
- the theory of transference (people tried to transfer the disease to something else, especially birds)
- thought people could sweat disease out (wrapped in thick blankets and sat by a fire)
What did the Plague doctors wear?
costumes including;
- mask including sweet smelling herbs to ward off miasma
- cloak was waxed so no disease could be absorbed
- mask was shaped like a birds beak in hope that the plague would leave the patient as they believed birds attracted disease
What did John Snow do when Cholera broke out?
- mapped out all deaths
- found a strong link to one water pump on Broad street
- removed the handle from the pump so people couldn’t collect water from it
- number of deaths fell dramatically
