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Medical Physiology > Medical Physiology mid-term > Flashcards

Medical Physiology mid-term Flashcards

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USMLE® Step 1 flashcards
1
Q

atom

A

smallest building block of matter- cannot be broken down into simpler substances; made of proton, neutrons, electron.

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2
Q

Name bonds by decreasing strength

A

Covalent bond; ionic bonds; hydrogen bonds; van der waals interactions

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3
Q

Example of polar molecule

A

water; all ions and partially charged molecule; amino acids

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4
Q

Example of non-polar molecule

A

O₂, CO₂, H₂, N₂, Hydrocarbons, cholesterol, triglycerides

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5
Q

________ has a polar component and non-polar component

A

Amphipathic

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6
Q

_________ likes water; is polar or ion

A

Hydrophilic

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7
Q

_________ dislikes water; is non-polar

A

Hydrophobic

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8
Q

Lipophilic

A

likes lipid; is non-polar

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9
Q

Lipophobic

A

does not like lipids; is polar

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10
Q

________ large molecules made up of amino acid molecules attached by ___________

A

Proteins; peptide bonds (specific type of covalent bond)

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11
Q

Change of shape of the protein

A

conformational change

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12
Q

________ protein molecule with attached long, branching chains of carbohydrate.

A

Glycoprotein

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13
Q

Most membrane proteins are ________

A

Glycoprotein

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14
Q

Lipid bilayer membrane

A

made of phospholipids, cholesterol, membrane proteins; impermeable to polar but permeable to nonpolar ( and somewhat permeable to water); Cholesterol increases membrane viscosity by hydrogen bonding with phospholipids.

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15
Q

_______ inside and spanning the bilayer, protein has _______ ________midsection and ________ ends.

A

Intergral membrane protein; hydrophobic alpha-helical: hydrophilic

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16
Q

Examples of Intergral Membrane Proteins

A

Channel; receptors, pumps ( Na⁺/ K⁺ ATPase pump), recognition molecules, enzymes, and sensory transducers

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17
Q

_______ attached to intergral proteins on inside of membrane

A

Peripheral membrane protein

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18
Q

Example of Peripheral membrane proteins

A

Enzymes or other controllers of intracellular function.

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19
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

amount of pressure required to exactly oppose force of osmosis

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20
Q

Movement of molecules across a cell membrane through simple diffusion:

A

no binding to carrier proteins, but can be selective; non-polar & small molecules through membrane ( CO₂, O₂, lipids, alcohol); Polar molecules through channels ( selective by size and charge) including water; Channels can be gated; Voltage gated.

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21
Q

Chemical Gating

A

gate open/ closes when receptor binds with transmitter molecule.

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22
Q

Voltage Gating

A

gate open/ closes when electrical charge across membrane changes

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23
Q

Movement of molecules across a cell membrane through facilitated diffusion

A

involves binding to carrier protein but no ATP used; polar or large molecules goes down concentration gradient; examples glucose and amino acids

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24
Q

Movement of molecules across a cell membrane through active transport

A

ATP used to pump molecules against concentration gradient; Primary active transport; secondary active transport.

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25
Q

Primary active transport

A

uses ATP to pump against concentration gradient; Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pumps in all cells of body; Ca²⁺ ATPase; H⁺ ATPase

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26
Q

Secondary active transport

A

concentration gradient of primary active transport used to pump ions against concentration gradient; no ATP used; Co-transport ( Glucose and amino acids into cells with Na⁺); Counter-transport (Ca²⁺ or H⁺ out of cell with Na⁺ in opposite direction)

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27
Q

1 Mole =

A

6.023 * 10²³ molecules

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28
Q

Carbohydrates are dietary components that break-up into simple sugars, such as

A

glucose, fructose, and galactose

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29
Q

Carbos in diet are:

A

sucrose (sugar), lactose (in milk), starches in fruits/vegtables and especially in grains, bread, rice, pasta, potatoes

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30
Q

Carbohydrates are

A

long chains of glucose and glucose-like molecules

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31
Q

Digestion begins with ___________ in saliva from parotid glands.

A

Alpha-amylase

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32
Q

Alpha-amylase, and all catabolism of carbos, performed by ___________

A

hydrolysis

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33
Q

saltine cracker will taste _______ after prolong chewing

A

sugary

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34
Q

after the stomach, carbos enter the _______

A

duodenum

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35
Q

Pancrease secretes very strong ________

A

alpha-amylase

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36
Q

Nearly all starches are _________ into __________

A

hydrolyzed; short chains

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37
Q

Enterocytes have these enzymes on their cell membrane (or cell cytoplasm) to break up disaccharides

A

Lactase, sucrase, maltase, and alpha dextrinase

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38
Q

Lactose :

A

galactose and glucose

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39
Q

Sugrase:

A

fructose and glucose

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40
Q

maltase and alpha dextrinase:

A

glucose

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41
Q

Carbos release ____ glucose, ____ galactose, and ____ fructose

A

80%; 10%; 10%

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42
Q

Carbos are absorbed by ________ and transported in ________ to all cells in body

A

intestinal lining; blood stream

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43
Q

Purpose of all glucose metabolism :

A

glucose break down, and energy released from breaking bonds is used to synthesize ATP from ADP

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44
Q

ATP

A

molecule that is used as energy source for all of the functions of the cell.

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45
Q

Glucose Catabolism consists of several steps:

A

1) Glucose entry into cell and storage as glycogen or immediate use
2) Glycolysis (cytosol)
3) Krebs cycle (mitochondria)
4) Electron transport chain (mitochondria)
5) synthesis of ATP from ADP (mitochondria)

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46
Q

Glucose in the blood transported by ____________ on specific transport protein.

A

facilitated diffusion

47
Q

Rate of facilitated diffusion is determined by _____, which increases transport 10X or more.

A

Insulin

48
Q

Diabetes caused by destruction of ________ in pancreas that ___________

A

beta-cell; synthesize insulin

49
Q

In diabetes, people have plenty of blood glucose, but …

A

cannot get into the cell

50
Q

Glucose, once inside the cell, is ________ or _________

A

broken up for energy; stored as glycogen

51
Q

_________ is simply large polymer of glucose

A

Glycogen

52
Q

Most glycogen stored in _____ and __________

A

liver; skeletal muscle

53
Q

Glycogensis =

A

formation of glycogen from glucose

54
Q

Glycogenolysis =

A

break up glycogen into glucose

55
Q

When action needed, sympathetic stimulated,…

A

… epinephrin from adrenal medulla activates phosphorylase to stimulate glycogenolysis

56
Q

When blood glucose low, ….

A

glucagon from pancrease activates phosporylase

57
Q

Insulin Action with carbohydrates causes an increase in _________ &____________ plus a decrease in_________ &__________

A

Glucose entry into cells, glycogen synthesis; blood glucose, glycogen break down

58
Q

Lack of insulin (diabetes) _________

A

Increase blood glucose

59
Q

High blood glucose causes these 3 effects.

A

Glucose in urine, cell dehydration, and blood vessel damage.

60
Q

Blood vessel damage includes what?

A

Kidney failure, blindness, peripheral neuropathy, gangrene, heart attack, stroke, atherosclerosis.

61
Q

Insulin Action with fat causes an increase in _________ &____________ plus a decrease in_________ &__________

A

Triglyceride storage in fat, glucose synthesis into fat; triglyceride breakdown, gluconeogenesis.

62
Q

Insulin attaches to the insulin receptor causing ____________.

A

Increase glucose carrier proteins (Glut-4) on the cell membrane

63
Q

To jump start glycolysis, ________ is needed and _________ is liberated for a net amount of ______

A

2 ATP; 4 ATP; 2 ATP

64
Q

Pyruvic acid becomes ________. which is the fuel for the Kreb Cycle

A

Acetly-CoA

65
Q

A waste product from the Krebs cycle is ________

A

CO₂

66
Q

What valuable by product is produced from Krebs cycle?

A

2 e⁻ + 2 H⁺ ( as NADH)

67
Q

Electron Transport Chain occurs where?

A

In the inner membrane of the mitocondrion.

68
Q

How does H⁺ ions get into the intermembrane space during ETC?

A

e⁻ cause integral membrane proteins to reduce and oxidize, creating energy that is used to actively transport H⁺ into the space between the inner and outer membranes

69
Q

Protein digestion begins in the …

A

Stomach

70
Q

______ in the stomach secretes mucus, viscid alkaline substance that provides a 1 mm coating of stomach to protect against stomach acid.

A

Oxynitic gland

71
Q

Oxynite glands secretes …

A

Mucus (neck cell); HCl (parietal cell); Pepsinogen (chief cells)

72
Q

The knob like projection from the mitochondrial inner membrane that produces a tremendous amount of energy

A

ATP synthetase

72
Q

The enzyme that uses the energy from hydrogen ions to cause conversion of ADP w/ Pi to form ATP in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

A

ATP synthetase

73
Q

Chemiosmotic mechanism/ gradient

A

is the creation of ATP through the increased H⁺ ions, creating a positive inner membrane space in relation to the mitochondrial matrix

74
Q

O₂, consumed during respiration, is split, combined with ___________ and _________ to form _______

A

2 e⁻; 2 H⁺; H₂O

75
Q

Glucose enters the cell membrane through…

A

facilitated diffusion via specialized transport proteins

76
Q

Glycogen synthesis occurs in ….

A

all cells, but mostly in muscle and liver cells

77
Q

Glycolysis reaction occurs…

A

in cytoplasm of the cell by free-floating enzymes

78
Q

Pyruvate reaction takes place…

A

in the mitochondria matrix through facilitated diffusion

79
Q

Krebs cycle reactions take place…

A

for the most part in matrix of mitchondria

80
Q

Kreb cycle produces multiple… (waste product)

A

NAHD + H⁺ and CO₂

81
Q

Kreb cycle produces multiple… (waste product)

A

NAHD + H⁺ and CO₂

82
Q

In coditions where not enough O₂ avaible for metabolism, ATP ca be produced by _________ only, with citric acid cycle and ___________ shut off.

A

glycolysis; oxidative phosphorlyation

83
Q

Anaeribic Metabolism occurs:

A

1) Breathing is stopped
2) Intense excercise (run out of O₂)
3) 5-10 sec. burst of excercise (faster)

84
Q

During anerobic metabolism, increased pyruvate and NADH + H⁺, causes….

A

pyruvate combines with 2 H⁺ from NADH + H⁺ to form lactic acid

85
Q

lactic acid can diffuse away and remove the excess ______ and ______ so that glycolysis can continue without getting gobbed up with end products.

A

Pyruvate and NADH + H⁺

86
Q

During Carbohydrate Lack:

A

blood glucose goes steadily down; decrease in blood glucose causes decrease in insulin release; decreased insulin causing glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis the fats and proteins; avoid hypoglycemia

87
Q

Blood glucose must be tightly regulated around ….

A

80- 100 mg/dL

88
Q

Carbohydrate intake causes and increase in blood glucose to …

A

120-140 mg/dL

89
Q

Insulin causes the increased blood glucose to…

A

enter all cells of the body (except brain) to be used for ATP synthesis.

90
Q

Protein digestion begins in the______

A

Stomach

91
Q

__________ in the stomach secretes mucus, viscid alkaline substance that provides a 1 mm coating of stomach to protect against stomach acids

A

Oxynitic glands

92
Q

Oxynitic gland secrete:

A

Mucus (neck cells), HCl (parietal cells), pepsinogen (chief cells)

93
Q

In acidic condition < pH5, pepsinogen…

A

Is cleaved to smaller pepsin, which is active in hydrolyzing peptide bonds.

94
Q

Activated pepsin digests _____, intercellular connective tissue that encases most of the meats and proteins

A

Collagen

95
Q

In the small intestine, pancreas secretes__________ that hydrolyze long amino acid chains making a protein

A

Proteolases

96
Q

Multiple_______ on brush border of small intestine splits into ________, and transported into the bloodstream.

A

Peptidases; single amino acids

97
Q

Amino acids are absorbed by cells through _____________ very rapidly, mostly in the liver

A

Facilitated diffusion or active transport

98
Q

In the case of starvation, proteins can …

A

be broken, dumped into citric acid cycle or made into glucose thru gluconeogenesis

99
Q

Deamination of amino acids…

A

In the liver, amino group transferred to alpha-ketoglutaric acid which becomes glutamic acid

101
Q

Deaminated amino acids can be…

A

Broken up to enter Krebs cycle → ATP
Altered to pyruvate → glucose (gluconeogenesis)
Fatty Acid

102
Q

After deamination of the amino acid, glutamic acid gives up its …

A

2 NH₃ in the liver + CO₂ → urea

103
Q

Type 1 Diabetes

A

death of beta cells caused by autoimmune and perhaps infection, age at onset <20yrs, plasma insulin low-zero, insulin sensitivity normal, insulin therapy

104
Q

Type 2 diabetes

A

insulin receptors become insensitive, age at onset >40yrs, plasma insulin normal-high, insulin sensitivity low, weight loss treatment

105
Q

Insulin lack on protein

A

↓storage, ↑ breakdown → protein wasting

106
Q

Insulin action on protein

A

↑ protein synthesis + storage

↓gluconeogenesis

107
Q

During starvation, proteins are “spared” ______

A

until week 6

108
Q

Mitochondria Structure

A

Outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, crista, and matrix

109
Q

Lack of food causes:

A

↓ blood glucose
↓ insulin
↑glucagon (from pancreas)
↑Increase in Epi (from adrenal gland)

110
Q

During lack of food, what maintains blood glucose levels?

A

↑ glycogenolysis (breakdown)

↑ gluconeogenesis of fats/proteins (breakdown)

111
Q

Excess glucose can be converted into _______

A

fat (triglyceride)

112
Q

Insulin action of carbohydrates

A

↑ glucose entry into cells
↓blood glucose
↑glycogen synthesis
↓glycogen breakdown

113
Q

Insulin lack on proteins

A

↑ blood glucose
→glucose in urine (polyuria)
→cell dehydration ↑thirst
→blood vessel damage

Medical Physiology (3 decks)

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