Media representations

Question 1

Media representations definition

Answer 1

the categories and images that are used to present groups and activities to media audiences which mat influence the wat we think about these activities and groups

Question 2

Male gaze - first applied to media by Mulvey (2009 [1975])

Answer 2

the way men look at women as sexual objects

Question 3

Media gaze definition

Answer 3

the way the media view society and represent it in a media context

Question 4

Symbolic annihilation definition - used by Gerbner and Gross (1976) and Tuchman et al (1978)

Answer 4

refers to the lack of visibility, under-representation and limited roles of certain groups in media representations, as they are omitted, condemned or trivialised in many roles

Question 5

Gauntlett (2008) emphasises that there is

Answer 5

a diversity of media, representations and audiences and therefore it can’t be assumed that media representations will be consistent or have the same effects on audiences

Question 6

Glasgow Media Group (GMG) point out that media representations and stereotypes

Answer 6

are formed within the context of the dominant ideology, meaning that they generally reinforce the cultural hegemony of the dominant social class and justify existing inequalities

Question 7

Representations of children - ‘7 deadly stereotypes’ found by Children’s Express based on national newspaper outlet for 1 week in 1998

Answer 7

• kids as victims
• cute kids
• little devils
• kids as brilliant
• kids as accessories
• kids these days! (emphasises nostalgia for the past)
• little angels

Question 8

Folk devils definition

Answer 8

individuals or groups posing an imagined or exaggerated threat to society

Question 9

Representations of youth (from around 15 to early 20s)

Answer 9

• MORI (2005) - 57% of stories about youth were negative, 12% positive, 40% focused on crime, vandalism and anti-social behaviour
• Women in journalism (2009) - teenage boys most frequently appeared in media in stories about crim - described as ‘thugs’,’feral’,’heartless’,’scum’ etc
• White et al (2012) - more than 40% of youths dissatisfied with the way media represented them
• these representations are driven by news values and encourage stereotypes
• Cohen (2002) - young people relatively powerless so are easy to blame for problems in society - become folk devils (esp young black people) in moral panics
• this could be changing in new media as young people are the main consumers

Question 10

Representations of older people

Answer 10

• Cuddy and Fiske (2004) - 1.5% of US TV characters are elderly, mostly negatively in minor roles
• Biggs (1993) found UK TV presented older people negatively - forgetful, difficult etc
• older men are typically seen more positively - ‘silver fox’ ‘wise old men’ - compared to older women who are symbolically annihilated
• White et al (2012) - older viewers thought they were stereotyped and underrepresented (esp women), finding media to be ‘insulting’ and ‘out of step’ with the ageing population
• Szmigin and Carrigan (2000) - advertisers are wary of using older models because it could alienate younger audiences
• however growing numbers of older people and the increasing power of the ‘grey pound’ encourages more positive roles and advertising aimed to older people

Question 11

General features of representations of social class

Answer 11

• the mainstream media is filtered through the eyes of the rich and power media owners and middle-class journalists and media professionals, resulting in more favourable portrayer of the upper classes and an overrepresentation of the upper classes
• Jones (2011) - media gives the impression “we’re all middle class now” by celebrating the upper classes
• class is represented as a lifestyle choice
• Lawler (2005) - ‘taste’ is a symbol of class identity with consumer goods forming their lifestyle
• McKendrick et al (2008) - poverty is seen as a marginal issue in the media
• Weltman (2008) - the media devalues working class people through negative stereotypes

Question 12

Representations of the working class - Curran and Seaton

Answer 12

suggest that media aimed for the working class (tabloids etc) suggest that the WC has little interest in politics or public affairs, focusing on entertainment and celebrity culture

Question 13

4 main representations of the working class

Answer 13

• as dumb and stupid buffoons
• as a source of trouble and conflict
• as living in idealised/romanticised working-class communities
• as white trash and scum - the ‘chav’ stereotype

Question 14

Representation of the working class as dumb and stupid buffoons

Answer 14

Butch (2003) studied US TV and found that WC characters are seen as figures of fun - well-intentioned but flawed individuals who are immature, inarticulate and lacking in common sense
eg the Royle family, Only Fools and Horses
Butch suggests that this reinforces dominant class ideology and justifies patterns of inequality

Question 15

Representation of working class as a source of trouble and conflict

Answer 15

presented as undesirable benefit scroungers, lone parents, unable to cope with delinquent children etc - GMG points out how this reinforces dominant ideology

Question 16

Representation of working class as living in idealised or romanticised working-class communities

Answer 16

often presented as hard-working and respectable, living in close-knit communities like Eastenders and Call the Midwife, where life revolves around local pubs, shops and close and supportive networks - little basis in reality as many traditional WC communities are fading
Jones suggests that these romanticised perceptions are a result of the middle-class media creators ideas, and that this presentation is declining with the emergence of the stereotype of chavs

Question 17

Representation of working class as white trash and scum: ‘chavs’ and the demonization of the working class

Answer 17

• hostile negative stereotype of the WC
• mostly emerged in the late 90s and early 00s
• Lawler (2005) - this presents WC as “worthless, disgusting, contemptible, frightening and threatening chavs, with bad clothes, bad food, bad behaviour and bad taste”
• Weltman (2008) - chav stereotype is used to devalue WC taste and culture
• Tyler (2008) - the term ‘chav’ has become a common form of MC abuse of the poor WC
• examples of representations of ‘chavs’ - Channel 4 Benefit Street documentary, Catherine Tate’s Lauren Cooper, Little Britain’s Vicky Pollard, Jeremy Kyle show
• Shildrick et al (2007) - media suggests that these features arise as a result of moral and character failings, rather than structural issues

Question 18

Representations of the middle class

Answer 18

• over-represented
• generally presented positively- mature, sensible, well-educated and successful
• MC families seen as well-functioning units
• taste and consumption presented in drama, sitcoms, advertising, magazines and newspapers as the norms everyone should aspire to
• result of the media gaze of a middle-class dominated media establishment
• confirms and promotes the dominate ideology
• justifies existing class structure

Question 19

Representations of the upper class

Answer 19

• most extensively represented through coverage of the monarchy
• generally presented as being ‘well-bred’, cultured, superior, posh, decent and respectable, but sometimes odd or eccentric
• often portrayed in a romanticised or nostalgic way (Downton Abbey)
• lavish lifestyles presented in stories about celebrities
• pluralists see this as a result of what audiences want but neomarxists see this as a celebration of hierarchy and wealthy, promoting the dominant ideology

Question 20

General features of representations of ethnicity

Answer 20

• ethnic minorities are under-represented in senior management of media companies - GMG point out that representations are filtered through white MC journalists, as Hall (2003) said ‘the white eye through which they are seen’
• Cumberbatch et al (2014) - 1 in 7 roles was an ethnic minority (slightly overrepresented) nit were clustered in certain types of programmes and typically played minor roles
• often marginalised and only featured in programmes specifically about minority groups
• Malik (2002) - black caribbeans appear in light-hearted programmes (sports, comedy etc) rather than ones about politics or as experts
• Beattie et al (1999 - GMG) - black and asian characters are usually minor, supporting or temporary roles
• Beattie et al - in adverts white people appear more as professionals and black people tend to musicians, sports people and in exotic dress, with less speaking roles
• Clearcast 2010 - 5.3% of UK TV adverts showed people from ethnic minorities
• Gill (2007) - narrow range of representations of black women
• Hargraves (2002) - minority viewers concerned with negative portrayals based on ethnicities and complain about it not being realistic and underrepresented

Question 21

Media stereotypes of ethnicity

Answer 21

• Hall (2003) - black and asian people are represented as cheating, cunning and potentially nasty, as the source of social problems and conflict
• Cottle (2000) - minority groups shown in degrading, negative and unsympathetic stereotypes and as scapegoats on which to blame social problem

Question 22

Media stereotypes of ethnicity - as deviant and law-breakers

Answer 22

• Hargrave (2002) - black people more than twice as likely to be portrayed as criminals
• REACH (2007) - reported that black boys and young men are portrayed as a dangerous and threatening group, with their lives focusing on criminality, such as drugs, guns and gangs
• Hall et al (1978) - neo-marxist analysis of the ‘moral panic’ surrounding young black muggers in the 1970s and the resulting ‘folk devil’ label

Question 23

Media stereotypes of ethnicity - as posing a threat

Answer 23

• can be presented as threat to british culture
• immigration in particular is seen as a threat - moral panics
• media reports of events like forced marriage, honour killings etc give a misleading impression of minorities
• these stories are very newsworthy

Question 24

Media representations of ethnicity - as causing social problems, conflict and trouble

Answer 24

• include representations of misbehaving students, riots, immigrants etc
• asylum seekers may be presented as not fleeing a major threat but pretending to - economic migrants
• moral panics - eg 2003 the Sun front page ‘swan bake’ suggested that asylum seekers were killing and eating swans in London

Question 25

Media stereotypes of ethnicity - as having limited talents and skills

Answer 25

• often seen in low-paid low-skilled work eg cleaners
• seen as people who do well in sport and music but rarely portrayed as academic or professional successes

Question 26

Media representations of ethnicity - as having problems internationally

Answer 26

• developing countries seen as chaotic - AIDS epidemics, child labour and soldiers, famines, tribal conflicts, civil wars, military coups etc
• Glasgow Media Group (2000) - study of British television found that stories on developing countries focused on terrorism and disasters but didn’t give much context, presenting the developing world very negatively

Question 27

Media stereotypes of white eastern europeans

Answer 27

• negative stereotypes (criminal, deviant, threats etc) increasingly applied to white people from countries like Ukraine, Poland, Latvia, Bulgaria, Romania, Lithuania, Slovakia etc
• Dowling (2007) - in the 2000s eastern europeans were attacked and blamed in the media as benefit scroungers, lone parents, criminals etc

Question 28

Stigmatised identity definition

Answer 28

an identity that is in some way undesirable or demeaning, and excludes people from full acceptance in society

Question 29

Islamophobia definition

Answer 29

an irrational fear and/or hatred of, or an aversion to, Islam, muslims or islamic culture

Question 30

Islamophobia in the media

Answer 30

• frequent representations of islamist terrorist attacks have contributed to stereotypes
• 2007 Mayor of London report - 91% of media coverage of muslims is negative
• Goffman (1990) - there is a stigmatised identity of muslims contributing to islamophobia
• Phillips (2007) - media reporting in the 2000s makes the word ‘muslim’ conjure images of terrorism and extremism
• as Hargraves found, muslims are very concerned with these negative portrayals

Question 30

Explanations for stereotyping of ethnicity

Answer 30

• pluralists see them as reflecting what media audiences want
• Cottle (2000) - these representations encourage white media audiences to feel separate and superior to ethnic minorities
• GMG - negative representations are created through the eyes of white media professionals and reinforce the cultural hegemony of the dominant white ideology by scapegoating minorities for issues caused by capitalism
• moral panics (like the ones in Hall et al’s study) are seen by neo-marxists as a way of reasserting and reaffirming ruling-class hegemony

Question 30

Changing stereotypes of ethnicity?

Answer 30

• more appreciation of minority cultures - globalisation has increased cultural diversity in the UK and knowledge about global cultures
• more pushes to recruit media professionals from BAME backgrounds
• more media is aimed towards BAME audiences
• new media allows ethnic minorities to promote their views and counter stereotypes
• Abercrombie (1996) points out more BAME characters in soaps (Eastenders etc) who appear as ordinary roles rather than their roles being focused on ethnicity

Question 31

Glass ceiling definition

Answer 31

an invisible barrier of discrimination which makes it difficult for women to reach the same top levels in their chosen careers as similarly qualified men

Question 32

General features of the representations of gender - the under-representation of women in the media industry

Answer 32

• women are underrepresented in positions of power in the media industry
• the IWMF (International Women’s Media Foundation, 2010) found in UK news companies women are marginalised and face a glass ceiling
• women make up around a third of those in media management
• Women in Journalism (2011) - 74% of news journalists in national newspapers were men, and there was twice as many male editors as women
• Guardian newspapers (2011) found that 77% of news reports are made by male journalists

Question 33

General features of the representations of gender - the male gaze

Answer 33

• neomarxists and feminist writers emphasise that the media is filtered through the eyes of the predominantly male media professionals - Mulvey (2009) calls this the male gaze
• this means that women are sexualised and objectified
• Leveson Inquiry report (2012) - the tabloid press showed “consistent respect for the dignity and equality of women” and had “a tendency to sexualise and demean” women

Question 34

General features of the representations of gender - the under-representation and stereotyping of women in media content

Answer 34

• Women in Journalism (2012) - men accounted for 84% of those mentioned or quoted in lead articles
• The Global Media Monitoring Project (2010) - 76% of people mentioned in news are men, that women appeared more as ‘ordinary citizens’ whereas men are presented more as ‘experts’, that women are 4x more likely to be identified by family status (Mrs… mother of 2 etc) and that half of news stories reinforced gender stereotypes
• Cumberbatch et al - women appear in popular shows less as prominent presenters
• Martinson (2014) - 82% of over-50s appearing on the BBC are male, 5% of on-screen presenters are women over 50
• Cumberbatch et al - women are less likely to grow older on television

Question 35

General features of the representations of gender - patriarchal ideology and the symbolic annihilation of women

Answer 35

• feminist writers suggest the media tends to be patriarchal
• Tuchman et al (1978) - the symbolic annihilation of women involving trivialisation, omission and condemnation of women in the media

Question 36

The media and the social construction of gender differences

Answer 36

• Connell (2005) - gender identities are in part constructed by the media reproducing hegemonic or culturally dominant stereotypes involving ‘hegemonic masculinity’ and ‘hegemonic femininity’
• the media (esp advertising) promotes what Wolf (1991) calls the ‘beauty myth’ - the idea that women are assessed mostly based on appearance
• Tebbel (2000) - in no other time in history have women been so concerned with appearance and body shape
• different forms of media are aimed towards men and women
• Girlguiding UK (2012) - limited range of role models for women are drawn from reality TV and celebrities
• Children Now (2001) - 16% of video game characters are female, and most female characters are sexualised (eg in GTA)

Question 37

Hegemonic masculine characteristics

Answer 37

• heterosexuality
• sexual dominance
• repression of emotions/emotional distance (except with sports)
• physically strong/muscular/tall
• aggression
• independence and self-reliance
• competitiveness and ambition
• lack of domesticity
• rational and practical
• risk taking
• task-oriented
• lack of concern in appearance, style or personal health and diet

Question 38

Hegemonic feminine characteristics

Answer 38

• heterosexuality
• sexual passivity
• expression of emotions/emotional warmth
• caring and sensitive
• physically weak/small/fragile
• gentleness and non-aggression
• dependence (on men)
• lack of competitiveness
• concerned with and responsible for domestic labour
• emotional and unpredictable
• avoidance of risk
• people-oriented
• major concern with physical appearance (being slim and pretty), health, diet, style and attractiveness

Question 39

Wolf and Tebbel both suggested that women in the media are typically shown as young, pretty and sexually attractive

Examples of stereotypes about women in media

Answer 39

• the WAG
• the femme fatale
• the Sex Object (eg page 3 girls)
• the supermum
• the angel
• the ball breaker
• the victim

Question 40

Ferguson (1983) - the ‘cult of feminity’

Answer 40

• argued that teenage girls’ magazines traditionally prepared girls for feminized adult roles and generate a ‘cult of femininity’
• includes themes like getting and keeper a partner, being a good partner, keeping family happy, what to wear, how to cook etc
• this socialises young girls into stereotyped values and roles of women

Question 41

Gilmore (1991) - men in the media are presented as ‘the provider, the protector and the impregnator’

Examples of stereotypes about men in the media

Answer 41

• the joker
• the jock
• the strong silent type
• the big shot (successful)
• the action hero
• the buffoon

Question 42

Theoretical explanations of gender stereotyping

Answer 42

• pluralists suggest that it reflects what media audiences want
• liberal feminists suggest that it is a result of the lack of women in powerful positions in media and will change as women gain more power and opportunities
• marxists and marxist feminists see it as rooted in the need to make profits, as stereotypes and the ‘beauty myth’ provide a chance to sell profit
• radical feminists view them as a result of the need to promote and reproduce patriarchy , seeking to keep women subordinate to men

Question 43

Are media stereotypes of gender changing?

Answer 43

• McRobbie (1994) suggests that, in postmodern society, there is more fluidity and flexibility in the representations of gender
• Gauntlett (2008) suggests that there is a growing expectation for men and women to be treated equally and this is reflected in the media

Question 44

Changing representations of women

Answer 44

• more emphasis on independence and sexual freedom
• growing diversity of imagery
• McRobbie (1999) - a new form of popular feminism has emerged, shown in young women’s magazines, promoting assertive femininity and ‘girl power’
• Inness (1999) - women in TV and films are presented more and more as powerful ‘tough girls’ such as detectives and action heroes (eg Katniss Everdeen, Lana Croft)
• Knight (2010) points out that these ‘tough women’ still have an underlying conventional femininity and are nearly always played by conventionally attractive women

Question 45

Changing representations of men

Answer 45

• Gauntlett (2008) - media portrayals of men are also changing and there is more diversity of male identities in media
• New male identities have appeared (eg emo boys) who are more emotional, open and caring
• these changing masculine identities are reflected in the growing concerns of men with their appearance and attractiveness

Question 46

Explaining changing representations of gender

Answer 46

• advertisers have found lucrative markets in male cosmestics
• women are becoming more successful and powerful
• new media provides an opportunity to challenge and transcend gender stereotypes - however it does also provide more opportunities to reinforce stereotypes eg with online pornography sites

Question 47

Sexuality definition

Answer 47

refers to people’s sexual characteristics and their sexual behaviour

Question 48

Heterosexuality definition

Answer 48

involves a sexual orientation towards people of the opposite sex

Question 49

Sexual orientation definition

Answer 49

refers to the type of people that individuals are either physically or romantically attracted to, such as those of the same or opposite sex

Question 50

Representations of heterosexuality

Answer 50

• seen as the ‘norm’
• reinforced through women being sexualised and shown through the what Mulvey calls the ‘male gaze’
• men are increasingly sexualised
• McRobbie (1994) argued that men are beginning to face the same physical scrutiny as women
• new male stereotype of the ‘metrosexual’ - a straight man who embraces their feminine side

Question 51

Homosexuality definition

Answer 51

involves a sexual orientation towards people of the same sex as oneself

Question 52

Representations of homosexuality - the symbolic annihilation of gay and lesbian sexuality

Answer 52

• Gross (1991) - the media has symbolically annihilated gays and lesbians by excluding, trivialised, condemning or mocking them
• Gauntlett (2008) - although things are changing, homosexuals are under-represented and portrayed negatively in mainstream media
• Stonewell (2010 - LGBTQ+ charity) - LGBTQ+ people are portrayed in less than 5% of total programming, half of which were stereotypes and 36% of which are negative
• Cowan (2007) - almost 1/5 of people think TV is responsible for anti-gay prejudice
• Cowan and Valentine (2005) - gay people 5x more likely to be portrayed negatively than positively

Question 53

Representations of homosexuality - growing tolerance, changing stereotypes and the ‘pink pound’

Answer 53

• evidence of stereotypes reducing and increased tolerance and acceptance
• popularity of gay celebrities (Matt Lucas, Alan Carr etc) suggests that audience reactions to homosexuality are positive
• media companies are aware that the homosexual consumer market - the ‘pink pound’ - is large and affluent so pluralists suggest this leads to more positive representations

Question 54

Representations of homosexuality - the sanitisation of gay sexuality

Answer 54

• Gill (2007) - to avoid offending audiences or putting off advertisers, media represents gay sexuality in a ‘sanitised way’ - lack of kissing, touching or having sex, appearing mainly as stylish and attractive so they still appeal to heterosexuals (Gill emphasises the sexualisation of lesbians)
• these representations appeal to the homosexual market, don’t offend heterosexual audiences or advertisers and continues to secure the hegemony of heterosexual ideology

Question 55

Disability definition

Answer 55

a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on a person’s ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities

Question 56

Impairment definition

Answer 56

some loss, limitation or difference of functioning of the body or mind, either that one is born with or arising from injury or disease

Question 57

The social construction of disability

Answer 57

• disability is created by interaction between people with impairments and their social environment, in which social and environmental barriers limit opportunities for those with impairments
• Shakespeare (1998) - disability should be seen as a social construction and is created by societies which don’t take into account the needs of those who do not meet with that society’s ideas of what is ‘normal’

Question 58

The symbolic annihilation of disability in the media

Answer 58

• 1/4 of all adults were covered by the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) definition of disability in 2011 yet they are severely underrepresented
• Cumberbatch et al (2014) - content analysis of popular TV found that 2.5% of those on TV are portrayed as disabled, and in 2/3 of cases their storylines were based on their disability
• Ofcom (2005) - 42% of appearances of disabled people were in the context of highlighting issues of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination
• Sancho (2003) - the wheelchair is often used as an ‘icon’ of disability in the media
• Cumberbatch et al - over 1/3 of disabled people portrayed in media used disability aids (most commonly wheelchairs)

Question 59

Negative representations of disability

Answer 59

• Briant et al (2011) of the GMG found that between 2004 and 2011 there had been a reduction of sympathetic portrayers of disabled people, particularly those with mental health related disabilities
• nearly 1 in 5 articles describes disability using terms like ‘scrounger’,’cheat’ and ‘skiver’
• Philo et al (2010) of the GMG found that these stereotypes were also applied to those with mental health issues - 63% of references to mental health were negative
• GMG and Time to Change (2014) - media began to move towards more sympathetic portrayals of those with disabilities or mental health issues

Question 60

Cumberbatch and Negrine (1992) - 3 broad categories of disability stereotypes in films

Answer 60

• the criminal
• the subhuman
• the powerless or pathetic character

Question 61

Barnes (1992) showed that the vast majority of media presentations of disabled people consisted of ‘disabling stereotypes which medicalise, patronise, criminalise and dehumanise disabled people’

Barnes - 10 stereotypes the media uses to portray disabled people

Answer 61

• as pitiable and pathetic
• as an element of atmosphere or an object of curiosity
• as an object of violence (victims)
• as sinister of evil (eg Dr No in James Bond)
• as the super cripple (brave or courageous)
• as laughable or an object of ridicule (‘village idiot’)
• as his/her own worst enemy (self-pity)
• as a burden
• as non-sexual
• as unable to participate in daily life

Question 62

Shakespeare (1999) - negative portrayals of disability

Answer 62

are ‘a lazy short-cut’ which provides hooks to engage audience interest but do not provide accurate or fair reflections of the actual experiences of disabled people