Media and Globalisation

Question 1

Globalization

Answer 1

• Process – opening of the local, interconnected, interdependent
• Global integration – technology, communications, science, transport, industry
• Pace of integration is faster, extent of integration is greater
• Robertson – compression of the world, intensification of interdependence
• Giddens – intensification of social relations, linked to distant places
• Jameson – enlargement of communication, reduction of horizon of world markets (closer)
• Held – transformation of spatial relations and inter-regional flows
• Friedman – the world is flat – the world has shrunk from medium to small to tiny
• Creates connections, exacerbates differences – income, education, working conditions, housing, transport, social protection, violence, pollution

Globalization is…
* The process in which people, ideas and goods spread throughout the world, spurring more interaction and integration between the world’s cultures, governments and economies
* The worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration
* The opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected, interdependent world

Globalization Characteristics
* Significant changes to the relationship between and experiences of time and space:
* 24/7 – online, all the time
* Can interact with people anywhere on earth so location matters less and less
* Process are more interdependent and interconnected
* Flows – information, finance, trade, & labor (Castells, 1996)

Question 2

Electronic/Digital Media and Globalization

Answer 2

• The “technologization” of mass communication
• Social media as an accessible distribution and communication channel
• Digitizing of televisual media, music, news, & magazines
• Stratification of audiences: the understanding of a global audience, as well as defined and targeted markets
• Changes in how media culture is made and distributed
• Who makes media is one consideration, as is who controls the distribution channels. Let’s look at at this Disney Infographic (Nembhard, 2018)
• Do you have concerns about the homogeneity of content?

Question 3

What is Global Media?

Answer 3

Global media refers to forms of mass communication that reach across the world

Question 4

Impact of Globalization on Media

Answer 4

• News
• Entertainment
• Economy
• Advertising

Question 5

Why is Global Media Important?

Answer 5

• It informs
• It holds accountable
• It provides information
• It sets an agenda

Question 6

Cultural Imperialism

Answer 6

After WWII: 1950s & 1960s: End of “classic colonialism”
Time of political unrest and shift from colonial to national powers.
From colonialism to cultural imperialism
More ‘subtle’ form of control: brutal force not required.
“Systematic penetration and domination of the cultural life of the popular classes by the ruling classes of the West, in order to reorder the values, behaviour, institutions and identity of the oppressed peoples to conform to the interests of the imperial classes” (Petras, 1993, p. 140)

Question 7

Imperialism (Boyd-Barrett, 2014)

Answer 7

Power inequality
West vs. East
North vs. South
Center vs. Periphery
Big vs. Small
The idea of power and unequal relations of power
Power exercised over others, often without their consent
The extension of a country’s influence and control over another country

Question 8

Media Imperialism

Answer 8

Media as the “most influential single-component of cultural imperialism” (Rantanen, 2015, p. 75)
Def.: “The process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution or content of the media in any one country are singly or together are subject to external pressures from the media interests of any other country without proportionate reciprocation of influence by the country so affected” (Boyd-Barrett, 1977, p. 117)

Question 9

Effects of Cultural Imperialism

Answer 9

Tomlinson (1991) “Homogenizing effect” the perception being that everywhere in the world is beginning to look and feel the same Augé’s (1995) non-places: Malls, airports (universities?)
“Spread of consumerist culture” especially in developing countries, assuming the unfiltered bombardment of capitalist cultural products.

Question 10

History of Media Imperialism

Answer 10

1974 UNESCO-sponsored study
One-way flow of cultural products
Extensive penetration by Western (in particular US) media content (adv, movies, television)

Through history, media imperialism was about not only imposing control and influence over other country’s media but also imposing cultural and economic values.
The imperialists like the US wanted to impose market liberalism, now called neoliberalism, on other countries.

Question 11

Role of the United States

Answer 11

Americanisation thesis: spread of American popular culture throughout the world
Large and prosperous internal media market = easy to recover costs of production at home
US media could easily compete with local products
Tailor prices to ensure market dominance (Boyd-Barrett, 2014)

Question 12

Cultural Homogenization or Hybridization?

Answer 12

Cultural Homogenization
-Stirs thinking about what it means to be “modern” – new desires, new ways of thinking, news ways of envisioning their own identities (from citizens to consumers)
-Commercial aspect often emphasized, (e.g. McDonaldization)
This is a form of neo-colonialism? As a consumer, do you think about these factors before you consume?

Cultural Hybridity
-Blending and mixing of different cultures as a response to increasing networks and traffic of communication.
-Examples: There exist longstanding links between Asian martial arts cinema and US Westerns (Yojimbo, Kurosawa, 1961).
-Numerous popular films have strong East & West connections (Tarantino’s Kill Bill, George Lucas’ Star Wars draws from Kurosawa’s The Hidden Fortress.

Question 13

Classic Media Imperialism Thesis

Answer 13

One-way flow: Cultural hegemony (Gramsci) Rise of consumerist ideology
“West”/US -> “powerless” East

Question 14

Examples of Media Imperialism

Answer 14

Rupert Murdock

A Media Imperialist
A Media Mogul
Some of what he owns:
Wall Street Journal, New York Post, Fox, The Times, The Sun, BskyB

North vs. South:
U.S media’s dominance over parts of Latin America

West vs. East:
Western media sources, such as Reuters and BBC, CNA and AlJazeera, being used as main dominant sources in Asia.

Centre vs. Periphery:
British, German, French media dominating peripheral countries such as Lithuania, Belarus.

Big vs. Small:
Chinese media trying to dominate Hong Kong

Question 15

US dominance

Answer 15

The US could easily dominate local communications in smaller overseas markets
“Anglo-Franco-American dominance of an international network of global, regional and national news agencies”
World dominance of US in advertising, films and TV
Boyd-Barrett 2004

Question 16

Hollywood’s Global Dominance

Answer 16

“the dominance of Hollywood studios in the international supply of movies and television entertainment production”
60s/70s – many countries were dependent on US imports of TV and film
Boyd-Barrett 2004

Question 17

Dominance of UK over Ireland post-independence

Answer 17

UK market dominance over national Irish broadcasting and print media

Question 18

Why can they dominate?

Answer 18

1. Vertical integration
   The combination in one company of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate companies
2. Horizontal integration
   Horizontal Integrationis aMediaCompany’s Ownership of several businesses of the same value. AMediaCompany can own a Magazine, Radio, Newspaper, Television and Books
   Extra—media conglomeration
   Boyd-Barrett 2004

Question 19

The importance of context: Stereotypes

Answer 19

-Stereotypes emerge when there is inter-cultural contact.
-Stereotypes are usually related to a specific place, usually where there is contact between cultures.
-Stereotypes are related to a specific historical time and the events that happened then.
For example, during World War Two in the early 1940s, America fought Japan in a war called the Pacific War.
After this, Hollywood films stereotyped Asian leaders - such as the Fu Manchu character - as evil, unjust, corrupt, etc.
-Most but not all stereotypes are negative.

Question 20

Colonialism and Postcolonialism

Answer 20

Imperialism – practice, theory and attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling over a distant territory
Colonialism – a consequence of imperialism, involves implanting a settlement on distant territory
Colonialism is a dynamic interaction between empire and subordinate states who serve the interests of the more powerful ruler
Colonialism is an ideology – race, ethnicity, nationality, genetics
SarDesi Southeast Asia: Past and Present
Power imbalance evident in law, politics, education, religion, culture infrastructure
Motivated by economic gains, diplomatic rivalry, trade routes, military power, imperial ambition
Williams Capitalism and Slavery
Colonialism ended because of economic not humanitarian reasons
Postcolonialism – long term and ongoing effects of colonialism – material effects, discourse
Neo-colonialism – power imbalance still evident because poor countries are unable to compete with rich countries

Question 21

Orientalism

Answer 21

Edward Said’s Orientalism
Orientalism is a way of knowing the “Other”, involves the social construction of the “Other”
It is a construct made up by some people, therefore it does not represent fact, truth, reality
Naturalization of cultural assumptions and stereotypes – racial, gendered, power imbalance
“The Orient” is an imagined place, produced discursively through stories and stereotypes
The discourse of Orientalism affirms European colonial dominance over other places
Constructs Europe as dominating, restructuring, ruling over Asia
Constructs Asia as distinctive, exotic, romantic, exciting, mysterious, subservient
Usually results from inter-cultural contact in a place and time – e.g. WWII
Rejecting Orientalism rejects stereotypes and power-laden constructs, but does not deny that there are differences between Asia and the West
Orientalism – view of Asia by Westerners through Western lens

Question 22

A brief history of Orientalism

Answer 22

Orientalism is the term used for the work of scholars who study the cultures, histories, languages and societies of Asia or the Orient, since the 18th century when the tradition formalised (Hübinette 2003).
It was in the 18th century, when Western colonial domination in Asia was at its peak, that the study of the various Asian languages and cultures became a more focused area of interest in the West (Hübinette 2003).

Answer 23

Orientalism is the term used for the work of scholars who study the cultures, histories, languages and societies of Asia or the Orient, since the 18th century when the tradition formalised (Hübinette 2003).
It was in the 18th century, when Western colonial domination in Asia was at its peak, that the study of the various Asian languages and cultures became a more focused area of interest in the West (Hübinette 2003).

Question 24

What is Orientalism? Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin 2007

Answer 24

Orientalism is a mode of knowing the other.
Orientalism is an example of the social construction of ‘the Other’, a form of authority.
The Orient is a phenomenon constructed by some people.
Orientalism can make a wide range of cultural assumptions and stereotypes seem ‘natural’, a process called naturalization.

(Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin 2007).

Professor Edward Said (pronounced “say-eed”) coined the term Orientalism in 1978.
He was born in colonial Palestine but lived in the US.
He died in 2003.

Question 25

Orientalism is carried out by

Answer 25

Orientalism refers to a particular discourse related to the geographic, cultural, and socio-political idea of Asia or the ‘Orient’, as it is the production of European or Western ideas .
According to Said, Orientalism is carried out by:
-Making statements about it
-Authorising views of it
-Describing it
-Teaching it
(Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin 2007)

The Orient is an imagined colonised place, produced discursively through stories and stereotypes as Europe’s ‘collective day-dream’
Orientalism allowed the West to dream of adventures, sexual encounters, fame and fortune – and of Empire
Various Western cultural forms often accept and legitimise the structures of colonialism or dominance
(Duncan, Johnson & Schein 2004).
This is all done from a Western perspective through dominating, restructuring, and ruling over the idea of Asia or the discourse of Orientalism.

Question 26

Orientalism: featues

Answer 26

‘The relationship between the Occident and the Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony’
(Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin 2007: 153).

‘The Orient is not an inert fact of nature, but a phenomenon constructed by generations of intellectuals, artists, commentators, writers, politicians, and, more importantly, constructed by the naturalising of a wide range of Orientalist assumptions and stereotypes’ (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin 2007).
‘Claims about Asia’s distinctiveness had always been around, but they were largely the product of Western Orientalism, which imagined Asia to be exotic, romantic, and subservient’ (Acharya 2010).

According to Kandiyoti (2002):
Edward Said argued Western powers enabled the production of knowledge about other cultures that, in turn, became an instrument of further Western (colonial) domination.
Domination was not based merely on processes of surplus extraction but on a process of construction of the Orient that acted as a grid for filtering ideas and practices that ultimately establish the positional superiority of the West.

Question 27

Representations of Orientalism

Answer 27

Orientalism entails biological generalisations, cultural constructions, and racial and religious prejudices.
Rejection of Orientalist thinking does not entail a denial of the differences between ‘the West’ and ‘the Orient,’ but rather an evaluation of such differences in a more critical and objective fashion.

Scholars have noted that Asia in Western discourse has been observed to be:
Traditional
Religious
Irrational
Underdeveloped
Overpopulated
Socio-politically chaotic
Threating
Dangerous
(Hübinette 2003; Kwai-Cheung 2010)

Popular ideas regarding the discourse on Orientalism:
The West possessed the right to conquer, suppress and rule over Asia
A way of thinking about Asia and Asians as strange, servile, exotic, dark, mysterious, erotic and dangerous
The West stands for rationality and modernity
Popular ideas regarding the discourse on Orientalism:
The West is defined through a contrasting image of the Orient
The Orient stands for religiousness and tradition
Rationalising the conquest of Asia, since Asians are depicted as despotic or stagnant and in need of civilising or control

Question 28

What is Soft Power?

Answer 28

Hard power - the exercise of influence through coercion, relying on tactics like military force, payments, and economic sanctions

Soft power - uses attraction and persuasion to change minds and influence behaviour. Its sources include culture, government, political values, and positive global engagement

Question 29

Imagined Communities: nations & power

Answer 29

Benedict Anderson’s definition of nation
* The nation is an imagined political community that is inherently limited in scope and sovereign in nature.
* It is imagined because the actuality of even the smallest nation exceeds what it is possible for a single person to know: one cannot know every person in a nation, just as one cannot know every aspect of its economy, geography, history, and so forth.
* Imagined is not the same thing as false or fictionalized, it is rather the unselfconscious exercise of abstract thought.
* The borders of an imagined community are finite but elastic and permeable.
* The imagined community is sovereign because its legitimacy is not derived from divinity as kingship is—the nation is its own authority, it is founded in its own name, and it invents its own people which it deems citizens.

The nation can be considered a community because it
implies a deep horizontal comradeship which knits together all citizens irrespective of their class, colour, or race. According to Anderson, the crucial defining feature of this type of comradeship is the willingness on the part of its adherents to die for this community.
* The nation as imagined community came into being after the age of Enlightenment as both a response to and a consequence of secularization.

Question 30

Imagined communities

Answer 30

Large groups of people inside a nation-state who have perceived solidarity and cultural unity promoted by print capitalism

Explanation: Benedict Anderson argues imagined communities came about due to the printing press.

After this, people could read about their “nation” and its values daily. This shared source of mews helped them to develop a sense of community.

While the members of a nation will never get to know all other members of the nation, they imagine a solidarity among themselves.

Key institutions: After Martin Luther produced a German translation of the Bible in 1522, it quickly became a catakyst for the development of a German linguistic conciousness.

It was only unlil the technological advancement enebled by printing press that it could be rapidly reproduced and distributed.

Question 31

Sport & Imagined Communities

Answer 31

Reviewing Benedict Anderson’s Imagined
Communities
* A community that is socially and culturally constructed, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group - you don’t know all members, but you perceive that each of you share common characteristics – can you name a few?

The Psychology Behind Sports
Fandom

States are increasingly using sports mega-events as part of their ‘soft power’ strategies
* Mega-events being used for public diplomacy
* They are typically organised by variable combinations of national governmental and international non-governmental organisations and thus can be said to be important elements in ‘official’ versions of public culture
* International prestige bestowed upon the nations which have successful athletes
* The essence of soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others, and align those preferences to your own

Sports mega-events play a central role the symbolism of the power of a state represented in the performance of sports people at the Olympic Games or the World Cup
As Bially Mattern (2007, 102) comments ‘Soft power may also appeal to individuals and collective non-state actors since, in contrast to hard power, which the government controls through military and economic policies, soft power is available to any actor that can render itself attractive to another’.

Question 32

Hegemony

Answer 32

…can concisely be understood as a dominant group leading another through intellectual and moral leadership (Gramsci, 2009, p. 75).
* As outlined by Storey, “Hegemony involves a specific kind of consensus: a social group seeks to present its own particular interests as the general interests of the society as a whole…
* …the concept is used to suggest a society in which, despite oppression and exploitation, there is a high degree of consensus, a large measure of social stability; a society in which subordinate groups and classes appear to actively support and subscribe to values, ideals, objectives, cultural and political meanings, which bind them to, and ‘incorporate’ them into, the prevailing structures of power” (2013, p. 178).
* Consider hegemony as a process of naturalization involving a range of negotiations (and cultural categorizations, such as gender, age, & class)
* What role might soft power play in this process today?

Question 33

Building a Theoretical Framework

Answer 33

A theoretical framework is the use of a theory (or theories) in a study that simultaneously conveys the deepest values of the researcher(s) and provides a clearly articulated signpost or lens for how the study will process new knowledge. A theoretical framework is at the intersection of:
1) Existing knowledge and previously formed ideas about complex phenomena
2) The researcher’s epistemological* dispositions and
3) A lens and a methodically analytic approach.
*Epistemology is the theory of knowledge and deals with how knowledge is gathered and from which sources.
In research terms your view of the world and of knowledge strongly influences your interpretation of data and therefore your philosophical standpoint should be made clear from the beginning.

Theory that can be applied to interpret and understand data in your research study

Overview: utilizes theory/theories and their constituent elements as the presumed ‘working model’ that drives the investigation and analysis of a social phenomenon. Your theoretical framework will shape how you look at and interpret your data.

Examples: -symbolic interactionism, -positivism, -critical theory,
-constructivism,
-pshyhoanalysis,
-postmodernism,
-feminism,
-functionalism,
-structuralism

Question 34

Textual Analysis

Answer 34

Drawing from Roland Barthes (1967), “the death of the author” gives rise to the birth of the reader (you as readers of text, have power!)
* Description: “Textual analysis is a qualitative method used to examine content in media and popular culture, such as newspaper articles, television shows, websites, games, videos, and advertising. The method is linked closely to cultural studies.
Based on semiotic (relating to signs and symbols) and interpretive approaches, textual analysis is a type of qualitative analysis that focuses on the underlying ideological and cultural assumptions of a text” (Fürsich, 2018).

Readers of text:
* Ascribe “meaning” to cultural artefacts and in doing so we determine their cultural worth and position.
* Texts are polysemic, meaning they invite multiple readings. A group of people will never “read” the same artefact in the same way (possibility for dominant, negotiated, & opposition readings)
* We should recognize that how one “reads” an artefact is always changing, as we are influenced by many factors: our age, our ethnicity, gender, religion, interests, intellect, political viewpoint, access to and proficiency with technology, and more

Question 35

The Culture Industry and Globalization

Answer 35

• Theorists within the Frankfurt School investigated the presence of a
  culture industry that maintains an established order or social authority. Consider how participation in culture requires a certain conformity!
• The culture industry is, according to Leo Lowenthal (1961), marked by standardization, stereotype, conservation, mendacity, & manipulated consumer goods –
• “whenever revolutionary tendencies show a timid head, they are mitigated and cut by a false fulfillment of wish dreams, like wealth, adventure, passionate love, power and sensationalism in general (1961, p. 11)

Question 36

Cultural Export, economic outcome

Answer 36

Squid Game (2021)
BTS

Cultural Export:
* Improves Korea’s national image
* South Korea has higher sales of cars and appliances than Japan in Iran
Governmental Support
* Financial support for dubbing and production
* Encouraged content producers to cultivate overseas markets.

Economic Outcome of Hallyu

Economic Outcome
- Korean Wave countries receive a much higher rate of exports than non-Korean Wave nations
- Consumables sent to Iraq grew by 7,716%, in Iran by 234%, and in Saudi Arabia by 110% after airing the Jewel of the Palace
- Dae Jang Geum aired in Iran in 2007, and Jumong released in 2008 -> on average, the importation of domestic consumables has grown by 45% each year and surpassed USD 1 billion.
- In Saudi Arabia, showing Korean dramas resulted in the importation of consumables increasing by 9% during the 2009
- By 25.4% in 2010.
- The export volume of Korean products to Saudi Arabia now totals USD 1.9 billion.

Question 37

Cultural Capital

Answer 37

Consider this question – why are some tastes
valued and others criticized?
* What is capital? Capital “acts as a social relation within a system of exchange, and the term is extended to all the goods, material and symbolic … that represent themselves as a rare and worthy of being sought after in a particular social formation” (Harker, Maher and Wilkes, 1990, p. 1).

According to Bourdieu, cultural capital can assume three forms: embodied, objectified, and institutionalized.
* The relationship between cultural capital and cultural field – consider as a unique space that serves the purpose of reinforcing and legitimizing class power as cultural and aesthetic difference (Storey, 2013, p. 452).
* Is the acquisition of cultural capital maliciousness? - Cultural capital “can be acquired, to a varying extend, depending on the period, the society, the social class, in the absence of any deliberate ingraining, and therefore quite unconsciously” (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 244).
* Cultural capital is a part of our habitus

Question 38

International Media Industry

Answer 38

The media industry comprises all companies engaged in the development, production and marketing of media contents for information and entertainment purposes.
Characterized by:
* Large vertically integrated groups active in various types of media. Vertical Integration is when a media company owns different businesses in the same chain of production and distribution
* Numerous small and medium-sized providers
specialising in individual services or topics.

Question 39

Independence and Objectivity of News Media

Answer 39

By deciding which news items are “relevant” to its audience (gatekeeping), as well as how to order these items and how long to spend covering them (agenda-setting)—can raise questions about its objectivity and independence.

Question 40

International News Agencies

Answer 40

• News agency: organization that gathers, writes, and distributes news from around a nation or the world
• International news agencies are news organisations that inform every sphere of society, including the media, governments and businesses.
• News agency: organization that gathers, writes, and distributes news from around a nation or the world
• International news agencies are news organisations that inform every sphere of society, including the media, governments and businesses.

Havas, Reuters and the Wolffsbüro (later CTC) 1848–1914
* Completion of transatlantic cable linking Europe to Brazil in 1874 leads to Havas’ dominance of South America
* Increased use of electric telegraph changed foreign and war correspondence as well as the focus on disasters such as fires, explosions, floods, storms, earthquakes, shipwrecks, riots, duels, murders and suicides of important personalities.

World War I period was characterised by propaganda and censorship pressures, new technologies, the near absence of factual reporting
* The end of World War I signalled the emergence of new news agencies mostly privately owned.

Increasing adoption of short-wave transmission by international news agencies and diversification into radio and cinema;
* World War II and the Cold War affected the international news agencies and how they operated in the age of censorship and propaganda.

After WW II
* Institutional fate of major international agencies in the Western world such as AP, UP(I) Reuters and AFP, and how their fortunes differed greatly during World War II
* Reduction of the number of major international news agencies headquartered in the West from five to four –AP, Reuters, AFP and UPI
* Growing strength of US agencies worldwide, the diversification of services by agencies and relationships with postcolonial nations

Question 41

International News Agencies - MacBride Commission

International News Agencies - MacBride Commission

Answer 41

Setting up of the MacBride commission by UNESCO for the international study of communication problems and Reuters’ executive Gerald Long’s crusade against
UNESCO.
* Long saw autonomy of NWICO as an expression of Russian power grab and unnecessary.
* MacBride commission advocated to make global media representation more equitable.
* Report was condemned by the United States and the
United Kingdom as an attack on the freedom of the press

Mid-1950s–late 1970s as a turning point because of the advent of communications technology, and large-frame computersthat improved the collection, editing and transmission of general news

1990s
* Impact of Bloomberg on international news reporting
* Financial news, data and trades increasingly gained in importance because of globalisation
* Tough competition with Bloomberg’s application of artificial intelligence; the better access to US financial market sources in the 1980s–1990s; and a more hardheaded, better funded, and strategic vision, with major inroads into regions where Reuters was once supreme, like the Middle East and Africa

Question 42

CNN Effect

Answer 42

The theory that continuous coverage of major events on TV networks can influence domestic and foreign policy agendas.
* Works through the moulding of public perception, which, in turn affect policymakers’ agendas.
* The CNN effect can be defined as the independent news media promoting discussion and raising awareness amongst the public with the aim of creating a specific policy response to the events being covered.

The concept originated in the 1990s, when CNN covered the American military intervention in Iraq (1991), Somalia (1992), and Bosnia (1995) in real time.
* These interventions were widely seen as policymakers’ responses to media coverage of humanitarian suffering, like those scenes of refugees fleeing from Saddam Hussein’s forces in Kuwait in the First Gulf War.
* By playing the dramatic images over the air non-stop, the media provoked public opinion, which in turn provoked policymakers to lead a military intervention.

Question 43

Implications CNN Effect

Answer 43

Influence on western foreign policy, evidenced by the extent to which the media has been able to intervene in policymakers’ agendas.
* Media coverage of human suffering and ensuing popular outrage have forced policymakers to put certain issues on their foreign policy agenda that otherwise they would not have considered.
* While proponents of these interventions may have been generally pleased by western involvement, some have argued that these policies might have been based on shaky foundations as they were driven by media pressure rather than policymaking logic.

Question 44

Characteristics of the CNN Effect

Answer 44

The CNN effect is assumed to have two characteristics:
* (i) The news media is independent and has the power to set its own agenda, and
* (ii) it can provoke responses from policymakers

Question 45

Challenges of Political Efficacy of the CNN Effect

Answer 45

The CNN Effect transforms reporters into policymakers through their agenda-setting decisions and their ability to pressure policymakers into fulfilling their agendas.
* Some scholars (Noam Chomsky) challenge this notion on the basis that military interventions are not motivated by humanitarian concerns.
* Instead, these military interventions are simply the extension of traditional political powers using humanitarian contexts as a cover to pursue their own political and economic interests.
* Such criticism of the CNN effect questions whether the media is indeed independent and the nature of the relationship between policymakers and the news media.

Question 46

Manufacturing Consent: Challenges of the CNN Effect

Answer 46

Alternative interpretation of this relationship between policymakers and the news media is provided by the concept of “manufacturing consent.”
* Manufacturing consent emphasises the involvement of
governments in setting news agendas, and casts serious doubt on the independence of news media.
* The idea of manufacturing consent suggests that governments and political elites (e.g. policymakers) can and do influence the output of news media.

Question 47

What is global Advertising?

Answer 47

Global advertising refers to the strategic dissemination of promotional messages on a worldwide scale, transcending geographical and cultural boundaries.
* This multifaceted marketing approach involves crafting campaigns that resonate universally while accommodating diverse cultural nuances.
* It works on a spectrum of media channels, including digital platforms, traditional media, and emerging technologies, aiming to reach a global audience.

Global advertising requires meticulous research, considering:
* Cultural
* Linguistic
* socio-economic factors
to ensure effective communication and resonance with diverse target markets.
This field is shaped by the interplay of
* global trends
* consumer behavior
* technological advancements
demanding adaptability and a nuanced understanding of the global marketplace

Question 48

Why do national preferences matter?

Answer 48

• National and regional preferences have substantial influence in advertising due to their pivotal role in shaping consumer behavior and cultural perceptions.
• Understanding and incorporating these preferences into advertising strategies is paramount for achieving resonance and impact within specific markets.
• Cultural nuances
• language intricacies
• local values
  significantly influence consumer responses to advertisements, impacting their purchasing decisions.

Advertisers must navigate preferences to
* avoid inadvertent cultural insensitivity or miscommunication
* ensuring that promotional messages align with the cultural fabric of a nation.
* Recognizing and respecting national preferences enhances the effectiveness of advertising campaigns.
* It contributes to building positive brand perceptions and fostering long-term customer loyalty within diverse and distinct national contexts.

Question 49

What impact does advertising have on global media?

Answer 49

Cultural Homogenization and Hybridization:
* Advertising contributes to cultural homogenization by disseminating
globalized messages, potentially eroding cultural distinctions.
* Simultaneously, it facilitates cultural hybridization as brands often integrate local elements to resonate with diverse audiences.
Cultural Hegemony and Power Dynamics:
* Advertising, especially from dominant economies, can reinforce cultural hegemony by shaping global perceptions of beauty, success, and lifestyle.
* Power dynamics in global media are influenced by advertising spending, with wealthier nations exercising greater influence over content creation and dissemination.

Media Convergence and Technological Advancements:
* Advertising fuels media convergence as global campaigns span various platforms, leveraging the integration of traditional and digital media.
* Technological advancements in advertising, such as data-driven targeting, reshape global media landscapes, altering content consumption patterns.
Economic Impacts and Market Globalization:
* Advertising accelerates market globalization by promoting standardized products and creating a global consumer culture.
* The economic impact extends to media industries, fostering crossborder collaborations and influencing content production an distribution.

Information Accessibility and Knowledge Disparities:
* Advertising enhances information accessibility globally but may contribute to knowledge disparities as certain regions receive more advertising attention than others.
* Global media platforms, driven by advertising revenue, may perpetuate inequalities in information flow and access.
Ethical Considerations and Cultural Sensitivity:
* Advertising’s impact on global media raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding cultural sensitivity and the potential perpetuation of stereotypes.
* Advertisers must navigate ethical challenges, balancing the need for global reach with the responsibility to respect diverse cultural values and norms.

Question 50

Global Marketing

Answer 50

The globalization of business activities and the term global strategy emerged in the early 1980s according to Andersson and Svensson (2009). Mooij (1998, p. 6) defines globalization in a broad sense as “the crystallization of the entire world as a single place.”
* The growth of world trade with a wider range of goods and services is higher than ever before (Mooij, 1998). Sheth (1986) points to three possible reasons for the emerging globalization of business activities in the early 1980s:
* The access to foreign markets
* The increasing degree of international standardization of products
and standards
* The increasing number of worldwide mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures.

Standardization or local adaptation of global marketing strategy
* It has been argued that the worldwide marketplace has become so
homogenized that multinational corporations can market standardized products and services all over the world, by identical strategies, with resultant lower costs and higher margins (Subash, 1989).
* Levitt argued that marketers were confronted with a ‘homogeneous
global village’.
* Recommended organizations to develop standardized, highquality world products and market them around the globe by using standardized advertising, pricing, and distribution.
* Standardization is said to offer the possibility of building a uniform
worldwide corporate image, a world brand or global brand with a global image.
* Proponents of the Levitt theory spoke of developing powerful advertising that crosses international boundaries, cutting across all lines of culture, nationality, race, religion, values, and customs

Question 51

Cultural dimensions and other factors

Answer 51

A cross cultural analysis is fundamental to devise a successful integrated advertisin strategy that reflects the cultural values and behaviours of its targeted audience.
* By recognizing cross cultural differences or similarities among countries, advertisers can understand which aspects are shared worldwide and diversify the elements that need to be adapted to local cultures[
* Cultural dimensions and other perceivable factors (such as stereotypes and habits) play an important role in the identification of differences among countries.
* An important contribution to these studies is given by Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, that are globally recognized and are reflected in every aspect of life
[
These cultural dimensions are for example
* Power distance
* Masculinity - femininity
* Indulgence vs restraint

Other factors can be identified and used when customizing and tailoring advertisements.
* Habits
* Traditions
* Customs
* The use of stereotypes in advertisements is justified by the advertisers’ intent to make their products and brands easily and sometimes even unconsciously
identifiable in the mind of consumers.
* Stereotypes can be used intentionally to show a product as appealing to their desired target market or unintentionally to enrich the ad with humor.
Generally, stereotypes can be race-, gender- , income, social status, or agebased

Question 52

Global Brands

Answer 52

The success of global brands has led to predict an inevitable colonization of world cultures by international corporate brands that would lead to the demise of local cultures.
* However, there is a strong evidence that social relationships and values in local cultures are relatively resistant to the assumed erosive effect of globalization.
* Globalization is expected to destroy local cultures, but on the other hand it is the reason for the revival of local culture identities in different parts of the world.
* Globalization has not produced globally uniform consumers. Even if there is a worldwide convergence of technology, media, and financial systems, the desires and behaviors of consumers are not converging.
* The increase of companies doing business in foreign markets is not directly related to an emerging universality of consumer needs and wants.
* This means that the consumer needs and wants are not becoming standardized and therefore can differ in each country

Many companies have learned that the standardized approach is not effective.
* Some consumer needs may be universal, but attitudes, motivations, and expressions of needs vary.
* The consumer behavior is not converging on global scale what makes a global marketing strategy as Levitt recommended highly questionable.
* Globalization has brought about profound changes in the society and a
central theme of globalization for international companies is the discussing of having a globalization strategy with more standardized component of the marketing process or a local adaptation strategy (Bathia and Bhargave, 2008).
* It suggests that the overall design follows a worldwide perspective, but that every detail of the strategy takes country characteristics and cultural differences into account.
* Champy (1997) challenges companies to value cultural and ethnic diversity and maintains that this is a pragmatic necessity for any company wanting to sell globally.

Question 53

Global Marketing

Answer 53

Success in the global market can be generated thorough the understanding of why consumers want to buy a product in each of the different markets.
* The values are found within cultures and between cultures.
* There may be global brands but there are no global motivations for buying those brands.
* Someone who thinks globally is still a product of his or her culture.
* Example: the global thinking of a person from one culture may be interpreted quite differently by someone from another.
* The most important key discussion regarding global marketing success is about to what extent advertising across national borders should be standardized across markets or localized specific to each market, or a mixture of these strategies.

Question 54

Glocalization

Answer 54

A global product can be loaded with local values to add local significance.
* A local strategy approach recognizes the necessity to consider locally related issues in the performance of business activities in the marketplace.
* In most areas the application of a genuine or true global strategy would be unsuitable, since local adaptations of business activities usually have to be taken into consideration in the marketplace.

Glocal marketing differs from the global marketing concept in that it explicitly recognizes the importance of locally and domestically related issues in the marketplace of marketing activities.
* Andersson and Svensson (2009, p. 38) defines the concept of glocal marketing as follows:
* “Glocal marketing strives to optimize the balance and harmony of the company’s marketing activities on operative, tactic, and strategic levels in terms of standardization versus adaptation, similarity versus difference, and synchronization versus flexibility.”

Question 55

Regulations on International Advertising

Answer 55

The impact of regulations on international advertising
* In many instances, the particular regulations of a country prevent firms from using standardized approaches to advertising even when these would appear desirable.
* Differing national rules govern the advertising of pharmaceuticals, alcohol, tobacco, and financial services.
* Advertising for alcohol, cigarettes and tobacco products,
advertisements showing women in sleeveless dresses, the use of
superlative adjectives is strictly regulated in many countries.
* Global marketers are recommended to check the local
regulations carefully before launching any type of advertising campaign.

Question 56

What is a Data Leak?

Answer 56

Definition of Data Leaks
* Data leaks refer to inadvertent or unauthorized disclosures of sensitive information from a secure environment.
* This breach of confidentiality occurs when data, typically restricted or confidential in nature, is exposed to individuals, systems, or entities not authorized to access or possess such information.
Mechanisms and Causes
* Data leaks can arise through various mechanisms, including technical vulnerabilities, human error, activism, or malicious activities.
* Technical vulnerabilities may exploit weaknesses in software or hardware infrastructure, while human errors may involve accidental sharing of sensitive data or misconfigurations.
* Activities can also encompass intentional actions by individuals or entities seeking to compromise data integrity.

Impact on Privacy and Security
* The consequences of data leaks extend beyond the immediate breach, adversely affecting individuals, organizations, and even broader societal structures.
* The compromised information may include personal identifiers, financial data, or intellectual property
* This can be leading to identity theft, financial losses, or reputational damage.
* Additionally, data leaks can undermine trust in systems and erode the overall security posture of affected entities.

Question 57

Preventive Measures and Mitigation Strategies

Answer 57

Effectively addressing data leaks involves a combination of proactive measures and reactive strategies.
* Prevention entails implementing robust cybersecurity measures, such as encryption, access controls, and regular security audits. Additionally, fostering a culture of awareness and education among individuals handling sensitive data is crucial.
* Ongoing evaluation and enhancement of security
protocols are essential components of a comprehensive approach to mitigating the risks associated with data leaks

Question 58

Legal and Regulatory Requirements

Answer 58

Organizations are often bound by legal and regulatory frameworks that mandate the reporting of data leaks.
* Various jurisdictions have specific data protection laws that outline the obligations of entities to promptly notify relevant authorities and affected individuals in the event of a data breach.
* Compliance with these regulations is critical to avoid legal penalties and maintain transparency in handling sensitive information.

Question 59

How is a Data Leak Reported?

Answer 59

Communication with Affected Parties
* Timely communication with affected individuals is a key aspect of data leak reporting.
* Organizations are often required to inform individuals whose data has been compromised, providing details about the nature of the breach, the types of information affected, and any recommended actions for mitigating potential harm (e.g., changing passwords).
* Clear and transparent communication helps build trust with users and demonstrates a commitment to addressing the situation responsibly.
Public Relations and Reputation Management
* Beyond legal obligations, organizations must also consider the public relations and reputational aspects of data leak reporting.
* Proactively communicating with the public, media, and other stakeholders is crucial for maintaining trust and credibility.

Question 60

Why are Data Leaks a Global Revolution in Journalism?

Answer 60

Paradigm Shift in Information Accessibility
* Data leaks represent a transformative paradigm shift in journalism on a global scale by fundamentally altering the dynamics of information accessibility.
* Traditionally, investigative journalism relied on conventional sources and methods. However, the advent of data leaks, facilitated by digital platforms and whistleblowing mechanisms, has enabled journalists to access vast troves of previously undisclosed information.
* This revolution in sourcing has empowered journalists to uncover and report on matters of public interest with unprecedented depth and granularity, challenging established power structures and fostering a new era of transparency.

Catalyst for Investigative Reporting and Public Accountability
* The exposure of confidential or classified information through leaks provides journalists with invaluable insights into matters of societal importance and also serves as a catalyst for public discourse and scrutiny.
* The global nature of data leaks transcends geographical boundaries, allowing journalists to collaborate across borders.
* This collective and interconnected approach to investigative journalism fosters a global dialogue on issues ranging from governmental transparency and corporate malfeasance to human rights violations.

Question 61

Who and What is a Whistleblower?

Answer 61

Definition and Role of a Whistleblower
* A whistleblower is an individual who voluntarily discloses information about perceived wrongdoing, misconduct, or illegal activities occurring within an organization.
* Occurs in the interest of public welfare or organizational integrity, with the whistleblower often acting as a key informant to authorities, regulatory bodies, or the public.
* Is integral to exposing hidden malpractices, promoting transparency, and serving as a catalyst for ethical rectification within both public and private sectors.

Motivations and Protections for Whistleblowers
* Motivated by a sense of ethical responsibility, moral imperative, or a commitment to upholding legal and regulatory standards.
* Legal frameworks and institutional mechanisms exist to safeguard whistleblowers from retaliation. These protections may include anonymity provisions, antiretaliation laws, and whistleblower reward programs.
* Whistleblowers are agents of accountability

Question 62

Data Leaks Examples

Answer 62

In 2016, the Panama Papers biggest leak in the history of data journalism with approximately 11.5 million documents provided by an anonymous source to the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung.
* In 2010, when WikiLeaks cooperated with The New York Times, The Guardian and Der Spiegel to publish the Afghan war logs.
* International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ), a journalistic organisation that has been around much longer than WikiLeaks.
* Different to WikiLeaks, ICIJ did not just provide (exclusive) access to the leak, but also developed tools and platforms that help journalists cooperate on a much larger scale.

• In 2010, there were lots of debates about its relationship with journalism because WikiLeaks was at its ‘peak’ with the release of the war logs and the ‘Cablegate’,
  Important questions:
• Is or was WikiLeaks a journalistic institution, or merely a ‘source’ for traditional
  journalists?
• What kind of journalism is WikiLeaks creating?
  Change in discourse
• The discourse around the Panama Papers read as an attempt not to copy WikiLeaks, but to adapt the practices listed above while simultaneously maintaining and expanding long-standing journalistic practices and identities.

Question 63

Panama Papers

Answer 63

Collaboration and sharing among newsrooms was essential and took place on a much larger scale than ever before with around 400 journalists involved.
* 1.2 million leaked documents from the same law firm at the heart of the Panama Papers investigation, Mossack Fonseca. This was on top of the 11.5 million Panama Papers files brought to us in 2015 by the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung and 13.6 million documents that were the basis of the subsequent Paradise Papers probe

How to deal with large collections of leaked documents?
* Sophisticated “big data” technologies and through an ad hoc analytical apparatus comprising of:
* international collaborative networks
* secure communication practices and infrastructures
* processes and pipelines for creating structured data from unstructured documents, and
* graph databases and exploratory visualizations to explore connections together.

The collaborative culture of sharing is a clear break
from the traditional mentality of investigative journalists: ‘lone wolves’ competing for scoops and unwilling to share with others.
* While leaking helped to establish data journalism in newsrooms, data journalism helped to bring a mentality of sharing and collaboration to investigative journalism.
* This mentality is taken from open source culture and increasingly shapes exceptionally large and significant leaks and everyday reporting.

Shared tools:
* Graph databases
* Knowledge Center
* Global I-Hub (secure hub for reporters)
* Connected journalists from nearly 80 countries working in 25 languages through a global virtual newsroom.
* Since 2016, the groups of journalists using ICIJ technologies has grown and more than 500 have been able to explore financial leaked documents and continue to publish public interest stories linked to these millions of records.

Question 64

Dealing With Unstructured Data

Answer 64

The Paradise Papers was a cache of 13.6 million documents.
* One of the main challenges in exploring them came from the fact that the leak came from a variety of sources: Appleby, Asiaciti Trust and 19 national corporate registries.
* The documents had diverse content and character and were often “non- machine readable” formats
ICIJ’s engineers put together a complex framework to allow reporters to search these documents.
* Documents were stored on an encrypted disk that was submitted to a “data extraction pipeline,” a series of software
systems that takes text from documents and converts it into data that our search engine can use.
* A variety of software helped making documents searchable and machine-readable.

Question 65

Tools to Secure the Whistleblower

Answer 65

Every individual is a potential target for attackers, and the risk of breach is high.
* PGP email encryption
* Mediators
* SecureDrop, a whistleblower submission system developed by the Freedom of the
Press Foundation.
* Ciphermail

Question 66

What Kind of Journalism Has Been Created?

Answer 66

The fact that leaking has been normalised doesn’t mean it didn’t change anything.
* Normalisation is change, but not the radical and ‘disruptive’ type of change that is popular when it comes to new technologies.
* The changes caused by normalising potentially threatening practices are more subtle, less obvious and relatively slow.
* The Panama Papers have exemplified how leaking supported two developments that increasingly shape investigative journalism: advances in data journalism and automation and a culture of collaboration and sharing.

Question 67

Ethical Dilemmas with Whistleblowing

Answer 67

Ethical Dilemmas with Whistleblowing
* Forbes reports that whistleblowers can cost companies billions in corporate fines
* Whistleblowers in the U.S. cost their employers $3 billion in fines in 2014 alone.
* Additionally, whistleblowing can feel like a violation of trust.
* This is especially true if the offending party works closely with the potential whistleblower. Humans are social creatures; so naturally, we become close with the people we see every day in the office.
* Company culture can also impact whistleblowing.

While whistleblowing can be a powerful tool for promoting transparency and accountability, it also raises a number of ethical considerations.
Example:
* Whistleblowers must weigh the potential harm to themselves and others against the potential benefits of exposing wrongdoing.
* They must consider the legality of their actions, and
whether they are in violation of any confidentiality agreements or other legal obligations.
* The decision to blow the whistle is one that must be made carefully, with full consideration given to all of the ethical implications involved