media

Question 1

media

Answer 1

any method of communication, other than one to one interactions, which is facilitated by some type of technology

Question 2

four elements that determine the emergence of mass medium

Answer 2

o Purpose of, or need for, communication
o Technology for public communication
 Might be related with the first one
o Social organization for production and distribution
o Governance in “the public interest”

Question 3

the medium is the message meaning

Answer 3

media and their messages can’t be separated and studied as separate entities

Question 4

hot vs cold media

Answer 4

 Hot (tv – we don’t have to fill in anything) vs cold (telephone – we have to fill in a lot)

Question 5

McLuhan hot take

Answer 5

o Media is an extension of man – any phenomenon that changed the way we go about the world (ex: electric light, the car)
o Media aren’t just convenient technologies for communicating the same content

Question 6

information overload

Answer 6

encounter so much material in everyday life that it leads to disorientation
o Sorting our reliable and useful information – requires media literacy
write

Question 7

ancient Greece about writing

Answer 7

writing is detrimental to memory, will create forgetfulness in the learners
o Later – it helps structure thoughts
o But taking notes with pen and paper might be more effective than using a laptop – limited capacity and multitasking, difference in encoding (slower – forced to think about it)

Question 8

invention of the telephone

Answer 8

originally invented as a means of business communication – concern about the use of coarse language
o Continued with the internet – more extreme behavior online, both positive and negative (lack of visibility, non-verbal cues, eye-contact, effects of negative behavior + anonymity

Question 9

google as part of our cognitive system

Answer 9

o Ex: misattribution of knowledge and overconfidence – people tend to think that they already had the knowledge they were looking for and overestimate their future performance
o Using Google as an external memory system – we could forgo remembering things ourselves, we’d need to prioritize remembering where we can retrieve information (as opposed to the actual info itself), we would have more capacity left for creative problem solving

Question 10

thin ideal + us stats

Answer 10

association of thin with good
o 5% of US women are underweight vs 30% of tv characters
o 50% are overweight vs 13% of tv characters (usually portrayed as villains)
- Exposure to idealized images has a detrimental effect on self-perception

Question 11

exposure to idealized images

Answer 11

detrimental effect on self-perception
o Exposure to “thin media” – related to perception of thin ideal as desirable and achievable
o Meta-analyses – small effects on body satisfaction, internalization and eating behavior

Question 12

difference between the person we think we are and personal standard

Answer 12

o Ideal self – based on hopes, wishes and aspirations
o Ought self – based on obligations and responsibilities
o Comparisons between these actual and possible selves drive self-regulatory behavior

Question 13

contrast effect

Answer 13

– lower self-esteem after comparing oneself to a standard that’s very different
o Ex: women asked to compare themselves to a model and then looked at themselves in a distorted mirror – lower self-esteem
 Self-esteem isn’t lowered if they’re just told to imagine that they’re the model

Question 14

counteracting effects of thin idealization

Answer 14

o More knowledge about influencing seems to be related to weaker impact of idealized images
 Ex: resistance after recognition of persuasion attempt – increase in self-esteem and less appreciation for the brand
o Warning messages seem to have the opposite effect – more attention it paid to that aspect
o Intervention – girls writing a warning letter to a peer or role-play – if you warn somebody, less effect on you
o Watching the film “Evolution” – how models walk in + the whole transformation to the ad

Question 15

how can Facebook help

Answer 15

could have such a self-confirming influence by providing positive but reasonably accurate information about the self – can be used to restore self-esteem or to create a buffer against the negative impact of feedback

Question 16

treadmill experiment

Answer 16

people running on the treadmill – avatar getting thicker or thinner when participant is moving
o More movement after vicarious reinforcement

Question 17

the agenda setting effect

Answer 17

Exposure in the media tends to predict perceived personal relevance of topics
o Accessible information has more of an impact – personal above the abstract, drama conflict and action, novelty, connection with important theme

Question 18

news framing influence examples

Answer 18

o Ex: People are more likely to support abortion if fetus was used vs baby
o Ex: attitude – free speech vs public order at KKK
o Building associations with an effectively charged concepts – tsunami or islamization

Question 19

what’s the goal of propaganda

Answer 19

the world where everything is true, and nothing is true

Question 20

identifying vs sharing news experiment

Answer 20

• Ex: one group just asked to identify false information – able to do it relatively accurately
  o Another group – asked if they would share the information online – no difference between false and true information

Question 21

important aspects of fake news

Answer 21

o Familiarity – a single prior exposure to a fake news headline increases later belief in the headline
o Source – attributing a false claim to Trump increases Trump supporters’ belief in the claim, reduces democrats’ belief in the claim
o Emotion – people who report experiencing more emotion at the outset task more likely to believe false (but not true) news

Question 22

post-truth

Answer 22

circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion that appeals to emotion and personal beliefs

Question 23

Americans fake news stats

Answer 23

• 64% Americans – fake news has left them feeling confused about basic facts
  o Only 4% could systematically differentiate between actual and fake news
  o 75% of Americans who were familiar with a fake news headline thought that the story was accurate

Question 24

inoculation theory

Answer 24

by preemptively exposing people to a weakened version of a (counter)-argument and by refuting that argument, attitudinal resistance can be conferred against future persuasion attempt
o Affective and cognitive component – “threat” (motivation, recognition that one’s attitude on an issue is vulnerable to attack) and “refutational preemption” (specific arguments in order to resist

Question 25

refutationaly same and different

Answer 25

• Refutational-same – inoculating people against specific information to which they will be exposed later on
  o Refutational-different – the message refutes challenges that aren’t specifically featured in the subsequent attack (hypothesis that this could provide umbrella protection)

Question 26

hypotheses of the study tm

Answer 26

o Active inoculation induced by playing the fake news game will reduce both the perceived reliability and persuasiveness of previously unseen fake news articles
o A mediation hypothesis – playing the game reduces the persuasiveness of fake news through decreased reliability judgements
o Negative affective content has shown to be an important element of eliciting attitudinal threat and issue engagement  playing the game will elicit greater affective involvement

Question 27

methods of the study

Answer 27

o Each group had to produce a news article that reflects their character’s unique goals and motivation
o Denier (strives to make the topics look small and insignificant), alarmist (who wants the topics to look as problematic as possible), the clickbait manager (goal is to get as many clicks as possible), the conspiracy theorist (distrusts any kind of official mainstream narrative)
o Two articles: one about bad conditions in immigrant camps, one about how they’re too many immigrants in the Netherlands

Question 28

results of the study

Answer 28

reduced the perceived reliability and persuasiveness of fake news articles
o Active inoculation required more cognitive effort and engagement from people
o Overlooked – all participants were young, maybe still developing their attitudes + small sample size

Question 29

how does google produce search results

Answer 29

o Relevance as popularity
o Relevance as a match to preferences – probability that a person’s existing opinions will be confirmed greater than for them to run into new information – confirmation bias

Question 30

filter bubbles

Answer 30

the result of biased information processing, resulting in exposure to a tailored selection of information that is in line with pre-existing attitudes

Question 31

three levels of filter bubbles

Answer 31

o Individual – cognitive and motivational processes (confirmation bias, maintaining a positive self-view, cognitive dissonance reduction, motivated skepticism)
o Social - preference for similar individuals, forming a shared social identity
o Technological - algorithms designed or trained to maximize screen time – less varied information

Question 32

fewer women in entertainment media

Answer 32

o 39% of new characters 1993-2004 were women + more often in stereotyped roles, in a less wide range of roles
o Overrepresentation in advertisements for household and beauty products
o Female characters more often portrayed as lust objects (especially in games)

Question 33

what kind of motivation is necessary for analyzing media

Answer 33

accuracy motivation