Meanings and representations: lexis and semantics

Question 1

What are lexical phrases?

Answer 1

• They are well known words put together, e.g. ‘once upon a time’ or ‘I’ve had one too many.’

Question 2

What is register?

Answer 2

• The specific lexis people use depending on the situation, audience, purpose and context. E.g. between teachers and students, doctors and patients, judges and lawyers.

Question 3

Where do frequently used English words usually come from?

Answer 3

• Usually come from Old English and are borrowed from French and Latin, e.g. ‘that, house, on, be, bread’.

Question 4

What is jargon?

Answer 4

• Specialist vocab associated with occupation or activity. This is difficult to understand for non-specialists.
  
  • E.g. teaching jargon: LS = learning support, SEN = special educational, FSM = free school meals.

Question 5

What are the features of informal lexis?

Answer 5

• Conversational, relaxed
• Colloquial, contains dialect words and slang
• abbreviations + contractions, e.g. ‘can’t, won’t’
• smaller range of words, generally monosyllabic -> shorter length.

Question 6

What are the features of formal lexis?

Answer 6

• more serious, impersonal
• made up from standard English
• wider variety + complex, more polysyllabic words
• made up of Latinate words

Question 7

What is cohesion?

Answer 7

• A measure of how well a text fits together as a whole.

- It’s internal logic and construction.

Question 8

What is lexical cohesion?

Answer 8

• How well the words of a text fit together and create meaning together.

Question 9

What is referencing and what are the different types?

Answer 9

• Referencing: When lexical items replace those already mentioned or about to be mentioned.
  
  • Anaphoric referencing
  • Cataphoric referencing
  • Elipisis
  • Substitution
  • Lexical field

Question 10

What is anaphoric referencing?

Answer 10

• Referencing back to an already stated lexical item. E.g. referring back to the noun you are replacing with a pronoun.

Question 11

What is cataphoric referencing?

Answer 11

• Referencing forwards to an as yet undisclosed lexical item, the reference comes 1st before the noun or phrase you are referring to.
  
  • E.g. ‘although I phone her every week, my mother still complains that I don’t keep in touch often enough.’ ‘her’ refers to the ‘mother’.

Question 12

What is an ellipsis?

Answer 12

• The missing out of words in a sentence.

Question 13

What is substitution?

Answer 13

• Replacing one set of lexical items for another.
  
  • Usually used to avoid repetition.
  • E.g. ‘I never saw a purple cow, I never hope to see one’, noun ‘cow’ replaced with the indefinite pronoun ‘one’.

Question 14

What is a lexical field?

Answer 14

• Lexical items that are similar in a range of meaning.
  
  • e.g. lexical field for weather: wind, rain, hot, cold, mild, storm, stormy.
• Also known as a semantic field.

Question 15

What is a semantic field?

Answer 15

• A lexical set of words grouped semantically that refers to a specific subject.
• A lexical set of semantically related items, e.g. verbs of perception (the senses): smell, taste, touch etc.
• Also known as a lexical field.

Question 16

What is potential (neologisms)?

Answer 16

• Refers to the situation in which there is a need for a new word (practical, social etc).

Question 17

What is lexical diffusion and what are the different types?

Answer 17

• lexical diffusion: ways that words enter the lang.
  
  • Adding an affix: suffixes + prefixes
  • conversion/functional shift
  • compounding
  • clipping
  • blending
  • back-formations
  • onomatopoeia
  • eponym
  • acronym + initialism

Question 18

Explain how adding an affix (affixation: suffixes + prefixes) is a type of lexical diffusion

Answer 18

• suffixes: added after the root/stem of a word and alter meaning of the word they’re attached to and can change its word class (-tion, -ness, -ish and -able)
  
  • E.g. ‘exploration’ from ‘explore’, ‘highlighter’ from ‘highlight’.
• prefixes: put before the root or stem of a word. The alter the meaning of the word, often reversing the original meaning (multi-, dis-, trans-, sub-, en-, be-).
  
  • E.g. ‘transgender’ from ‘gender’, ‘submarine’ from ‘marine’, ‘multinational’ from ‘national’.

Question 19

What is conversion/functional shift (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 19

• Word classed of existing words are altered. E.g. ‘gift’ can be a noun (the gift) but can also be used as a verb (to gift).
  
  • ‘Empty’ is an adjective, but can also be converted to a verb (to empty).

Question 20

What is compounding (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 20

• Joining 2 or more words together. E.g. ‘rainbow’, ‘toothbrush’, ‘watermelon’.

Question 21

What is clipping (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 21

• Shortening a polysyllabic word by deleting 1 or more syllables.
  
  • E.g. hamburger to burger, delicatessen to deli, microphone to mike.

Question 22

What are blends (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 22

• Similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted.
• E.g. Motor + hotel = motel
  Breakfast + lunch = brunch
  Wireless + fidelity = wi-fi
  Tiger + lion = liger

Question 23

What are back-formations (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 23

• A verb is created from an existing noun by removing a suffix.
  
  • E.g. editor (1649) to edit (1791)
    Television (1907) to televise (1927)
    Paramedical (1921) to paramedic (1967)

Question 24

What is an onomatopoeia (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 24

• Words created to sound like the thing they name. E.g. ‘Boing, Zoom’.

Question 25

What is an eponym (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 25

• A person after whom a discovery, invention, place, etc. Is named:
• E.g. Celsius (Andres Celsius)
  The Cook Islands (James Cook)
  Parkinson’s disease (James Parkinson)

Question 26

What are acronyms (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 26

• Words derived from the initial letter of several words and use them as a new word.
• E.g. ‘strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats - SWOT’.
• ‘Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus - Scuba’.

Question 27

What are initialisms (lexical diffusion)?

Answer 27

• Similar to acronyms but cannot be said as a whole word.
• E.g. ‘Federal Bureau of Investigations - FBI’
  ‘Central Intelligence Agency - CIA’
  ‘Public relations - PR’
  ‘For your information - FYI’

Question 28

What is denotation/denotative (semantics)?

Answer 28

• Refers to the literal meaning of a word, or its dictionary definition.
• E.g. ‘fungus’ means ‘any of various types of organisms that get their food from decaying material or other living things’

Question 29

What is a connotation/connotative (semantics)?

Answer 29

• Refers to the emotional and cultural associations of a word.
• E.g. ‘fungus’ often has connotations with ugliness and disease’.
• ‘discipline’ has unhappy connotations of punishment and repression.

Question 30

What is ambiguity (semantics)?

Answer 30

• A writing error that occurs when a sentence contains a word that has more than 1 meaning. Also known as semantic ambiguity.
• Obscures writer’s intent and confuses the reader.
• Sometimes used intentionally to create a pun (play on words)
• E.g. ‘I saw bats’, ‘insurance salesman are frightening people’.

Question 31

What is implication (semantics)?

Answer 31

• This is when meaning is suggested, rather than stated directly.
• E.g. ‘You’re late could literally mean you are late or you are in trouble - explain why you’re late’.

Question 32

What are synonyms (semantics)

Answer 32

• Words with the same or similar meaning.

- E.g. ‘happy, cheerful, merry’ or ‘sad, miserable, heartbroken’.

Question 33

What are antonyms (semantics)?

Answer 33

• Words with opposite meanings: ‘hot/cold’, ‘male/female’.
• They are quite rigid and don’t necessarily work with other synonyms.
  
  • E.g. ‘hot/cool’, ‘male/feminine’, ‘day/evening’.
  • ‘bad vs good’, ‘hot vs cold’, ‘happy vs sad’.
• Antonyms are used for comparisons.

Question 34

What is a euphemism (semantics)?

Answer 34

• A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for 1 considered to be too harsh or blunt.
• E.g. ‘passed away’ instead of ‘died’.
  
  • ‘make love’ instead of ‘sex’.
  • ‘let go’ instead of ‘fired’.

Question 35

What is a dysphemism (semantics)?

Answer 35

• A derogatory or unpleasant term used instead of a pleasant or neutral one.
  
  • e.g. ‘croaked’ and ‘6 feet under’ are dysphemisms for death.
  • ‘bookworm, brainiac’ are dysphemisms for a smart person.
  • ‘cancer stick’ for cigarette.

Question 36

What is a collocation?

Answer 36

• The term used when words habitually go together.

- E.g. ‘fish and chips’, ‘tall and handsome’, ‘make sense’’.

Question 37

What is field-specific lexis?

Answer 37

• The words (lexis) that make up a semantic field.
• A group of words connected in meaning: although the meaning of each word is different, they’re all part of the same framework.

Question 38

List the features of figurative language:

Answer 38

• metaphor
• simile
• personification
• oxymoron
• metonymy
• idiom
• euphemism/dysphemisms
• cliche

Question 39

What is a metaphor?

Answer 39

• Describing something as being something else.

Question 40

What is a simile?

Answer 40

• Comparisons using words ‘like’ or ‘as’.

Question 41

What is a personification?

Answer 41

• A type of metaphor where an object is given human qualities.

Question 42

What is an oxymoron?

Answer 42

• 2 conflicting ideas placed together, e.g. bittersweet.
  
  • ‘suddenly, the room was filled with a deafening silence’.
  • ‘there is a real love hate relationship developing between the 2 of them’.
  • ‘this is another fine mess you have got us into’.

Question 43

What is metonymy?

Answer 43

• A word is used because of its associations with an object instead of the object’s actual name.
  
  • E.g. ‘cash’ used to mean ‘money box’ but over time came to mean money itself.
  • Referring to the Royal family or a member as ‘the Crown’.
  • Referring to the President of the US or the US gov as ‘the white house’
  • Referring to American film industry or celebrity culture as ‘Hollywood’.

Question 44

What is an idiom?

Answer 44

• Sayings that don’t make sense when literally interpreted.
  
  • e.g. ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’
  • ‘bending over backwards’
  • ‘barking up the wrong tree’

Question 45

What is a cliche?

Answer 45

• overused idioms, e.g. ‘don’t put all of your eggs in 1 basket, I lost track of time, I’m like a kid in a candy store’.

Question 46

What is a semantic shift?

Answer 46

• Refers to the process by which a word changes its meaning. The meaning may broaden, narrow or simply become different.

Question 47

What is bleaching?

Answer 47

• Refers to the situation in which a word loses some of its original force and specificity.
• E.g. ‘bloody’ no longer carries the force it did when it was considered blasphemous word (‘by our lady’) in a predominantly Christian culture.

Question 48

What is leakage?

Answer 48

• Refers to the use of a word beyond its immediate context.
• E.g. someone may refer to a person as being in ‘default mode’ (from computer language).
• Some linguists would see this as an extension of lexical diffusion.

Question 49

What are the different processes of semantic change?

Answer 49

• Broadening
• Narrowing
• Amelioration
• pejoration
• register drift
• political correctness

Question 50

What is broadening (semantic change)?

Answer 50

• The meanings of a word gradually extend to a wider sense than the original meaning.
  
  • Also known as generalisation.
• E.g. ‘Holiday’ originally meant a ‘holy day’ to mark a religious festival.
  
  • Lost its religious connotations.
  • Now a 20th century concept, taking a week off work to travel/enjoy yourself.

Question 51

What is narrowing (semantic change)?

Answer 51

• opposite of broadening - the meaning gradually becomes more specialised or specific.
• Also known as Specialisation.
• E.g. The term meat was used for all types of food before semantic narrowing took place and it came to mean ‘a kind of food’, and then more specifically ‘the flesh of animals used for food’.

Question 52

What is amelioration?

Answer 52

• A word with a very severe or taboo connotations gradually becomes less
  negative and milder in its use.
• E.g. The word naughty originally meant someone who possessed nothing.
  
  • By the 16th century, naughty was applied to a wicked or evil person. Today it has a much milder application.

Question 53

What is pejoration?

Answer 53

• Exact opposite of amelioration: words with neutral or even positive connotations gradually come to acquire pejorative associations.
• E.g. The word silly meant ‘blessed’ in Old English then came to mean ‘innocent’. It has now come to mean ‘unwise’ or ‘foolish’.

Question 54

What is register drift?

Answer 54

• A word that is thought of as slang can eventually gain acceptance as respectable. - Also, some words can drift the opposite way and become less acceptable.
• E.g. The word fag (a nuisance or something tiring) occurs in many 18th century sources as acceptable Standard English.

Question 55

What is political correctness (Semantic change)?

Answer 55

• More recent semantic change has occurred because of political correctness, which seeks to redress some of the linguistic bias featured in language and power/ gender.
  
  • E.g:
  • Man-made -> artificial
  • Fire man -> fire fighter
  • Prostitute -> body entrepreneur
  • Bin man -> recycling operative

Question 56

What is context?

Answer 56

• Refers to specific elements of a situation, e.g. effects of time, place, ideologies, relationships.
• Context results in recognisable styles called registers, e.g. medical register, scientific register, sports, gaming, business, legal, advertising etc.

Question 57

What is a pre-modifier?

Answer 57

• A word, especially an adjective or a noun, that is placed before a noun and describes it or limits its meaning in some way.
  
  • E.g. ‘the beautiful animal died’, ‘beautiful’ comes before head noun ‘animal’.
  • ‘I heard a loud noise’, ‘loud’ comes before ‘noise’.

Question 58

What is a post modifier?

Answer 58

• A word or group of words that describes a noun phrase or limits its meaning in some way, and is placed after it.
  
  • E.g. ‘the zoo closed’, ‘closed’ comes after ‘zoo’.
  • ‘the house on the corner’, ‘on the corner’ is a postmodifier.

Question 59

What is a noun phrase?

Answer 59

• a word or group of words containing a noun and functioning in a sentence as subject, object, or prepositional object.
• E.g. ‘the (determiner) humble (pre-modifier) servant (head) bowed.
• ‘the fierce lion’
• ‘the London bridge’

Question 60

What is a common noun?

Answer 60

• a noun that classifies things into categories.
• the name of a group of similar things, not a specific person, place, or thing.
  
  • e.g. ‘animal, city, table, book’.

Question 61

What is a proper noun?

Answer 61

• Refers to specific people, place, thing. They begin with a capital letter. E.g. ‘Aaron, London, Cadbury etc’.

Question 62

What is an abstract noun?

Answer 62

• Refers to ideas, occasions, things that can’t be touched or seen with your 5 senses.
• E.g. ‘joy, hate, life, belief, history etc’

Question 63

What is a collective noun?

Answer 63

• A noun that is singular in form but that refers to a group of people or things.
• A collection of things taken as a whole.
• E.g. fish, sheep, flock, family, herds, pride (lions) etc.
• government, team, audience etc

Question 64

What is a concrete noun?

Answer 64

• Refers to physical things/objects, e.g. ‘rock, chair, tree etc’.

Question 65

What is a hyponym?

Answer 65

• The words with specific meaning, under a hypernym.

- E.g. hyponyms of fruit could be ‘apples, oranges, bananas etc’.

Question 66

What is a conceptual metaphor?

Answer 66

• using physical things to represent a concept/idea.
  
  • E.g. ‘life is a gambling game -> instead of ‘I’ll take my chances’.
  • ‘time is money’ -> ‘stop wasting time’.

Question 67

What is a hypernym?

Answer 67

• A general term that classifies things.

- E.g. ‘Animal’ encompasses tiger, sheep, dogs, elephants etc.

Question 68

What is active voice?

Answer 68

• When the subject is emphasised in a sentence over the object and verb. The subject is emphasised.
  
  • E.g. ‘the pupil will read the book.’
  • ‘Susan will paint the wall.’

Question 69

What is assonance?

Answer 69

• Juxtaposition of similar sounds, especially vowels.
  
  • E.g. ‘the light of the fire is a sight to behold’ (repetition of the long ‘i’ sound).
  • ‘Go slow over the road’ (repetition of the long ‘o’ sound).

Question 70

What are the vowels?

Answer 70

• The letters A E I O U

Question 71

What is a comparative?

Answer 71

• A construction that serves to express a comparison between 2 entities or groups of entities in quality or degree.
• E.g. ‘stronger, happier, more gentle, better, more expensive, less’.

Question 72

What is a compound sentence?

Answer 72

• Made up of 2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) or by a semicolon.
• E.g. ‘the pirate captain lost her treasure map, but she still found the buried treasure.’

Question 73

What is a conditional clause?

Answer 73

• a sentence that suggests one outcome would happen -> if under certain circumstances/situation etc:
  
  • E.g. ‘if it rains, the picnic will be cancelled’.
  • ‘If Bonnie had studied, she would have passed the test’.

Question 74

What is consonance?

Answer 74

• Consonance is the repetition of consonants.
  
  • E.g. ‘Mike likes his new bike’.
  • ‘it will creep and beep while you sleep’.

Question 75

What is a copular verb?

Answer 75

• Copulas, linking verbs or copulative verbs are a special type of verb that joins a noun complement or an adjective to the subject of the sentence.
• E.g. ‘BE, SEEM, APPEAR, LOOK, GET’.
• ‘he BECAME a chef’.
• ‘he LOOKS intelligent’

Question 76

What is a declarative?

Answer 76

• A statement. E.g. ‘my dog is sick’, ‘it is cold today’.

Question 77

What is a determiner?

Answer 77

• A modifying word that determines the kind of reference a noun or noun group has.
• E.g. ‘a, an, the, these, that, my, his, yours, some, every, six, no’.

Question 78

What is a diphthong?

Answer 78

• A sound formed by the combination of 2 vowels in syllable, in which the sound begins as 1 vowel and moves towards another.
• E.g. ‘coin, loud, side, feat’.

Question 79

What is dissonance?

Answer 79

• Use of impolite, harsh-sounding, and unusual words. Opposite of assonance, no similar combination of vowel sounds.
  
  • E.g. ‘the tent of the hills drummed and strained’.
  • ‘four beating wings, 2 beaks, a swirling mass tight grappling’.

Question 80

What is a dynamic verb?

Answer 80

• A verb that shows continued or progressive action on the part of the subject. Opposite of stative verb.
• E.g. ‘become, drink, grow, learn, run, sleep, work, watch’.

Question 81

What is an exclamatory?

Answer 81

• Expression of surprise, a strong emotion, or pain. Often by an exclamation mark.
  
  • E.g. ‘wow!’, ‘it’s a boy!’, ‘I’m really going to miss this place’, ‘you were meant to be back yesterday!’.

Question 82

What is a morpheme?

Answer 82

• The smallest linguistic part of a word that can have a meaning.
• An element of meaning smaller than a word.
• E.g. ‘talked’ has 2 morphemes (‘talk’ and ‘ed’).
• The words ‘the, in and girl’ consist of 1 morpheme. The word ‘girls’ consists of 2 morphemes: ‘girl’ and ‘s’.

Question 83

What is a free morpheme?

Answer 83

• A morpheme that can stand alone.

- E.g. ‘girl, house, fire, big, nice, sleep, walk, quick, say, eat’.

Question 84

What is an imperative?

Answer 84

• a command.

- ‘do, don’t, come, go, stop, clean, work, watch, listen’

Question 85

What is an interrogative?

Answer 85

• A question which demands an answer?
  
  • E.g. ‘where do you live?’
  • ‘What are you doing?’

Question 86

What is an intransitive verb?

Answer 86

• It is impossible for an object to follow these verbs.

- E.g. ‘arrive’ and ‘die’, you can’t ‘arrive’ something and you can’t ‘die’ something.

Question 87

What is passive voice?

Answer 87

• When the object and verb is emphasised in a sentence over the subject.
• The subject is not performing the verb in the passive voice, but is rather being acted upon by it.
  
  • E.g. ‘the book was read by the pupil’.
  • ‘the wall will be painted by Susan’.

Question 88

What is a personal pronoun?

Answer 88

• Pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical person, 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person.
• ‘I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them.’
• replaces the subject or the object -> I, he -> subject.
  -> me, him -> object

Question 89

What is a phrase?

Answer 89

• A phrase is a group of words, but it doesn’t contain a subject and a verb.
  
  • E.g. noun phrase: ‘best friend’.
  • prepositional phrase: ‘in the bin’

Question 90

What is a possessive pronoun?

Answer 90

• A word or grammatical construction used to indicate a relationship of possession.
• E.g. ‘mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, mine, yours’
• they show possession.
• words like ‘her, your’ would be determiners rather than pronouns as they precede the pronoun rather than take place.

Question 91

What is a pronoun?

Answer 91

• A word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase.

- E.g. ‘I, you, he, she, my, your, their, himself, itself, yourself’.

Question 92

What is a reflexive pronoun?

Answer 92

• These pronouns refer back to the person or thing to indicate the relationship between the subject and object.
• E.g. ‘myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves.’
• end in ‘-self’ or ‘-selves’.

Question 93

What is a relative clause?

Answer 93

• They enrich sentences by offering extra info. As a type of subordinate clause, it offers additional info and should be used as a conjunction with a main or independent clause.
  
  • E.g. ‘who, which, that, whose etc’
  • ‘ The farmer, whose name was Fred, sold as 10 pounds of potatoes.’
  • ‘my mother, who is 86, lives in Paris.’

Question 94

What is a simple sentence?

Answer 94

• A sentence consisting of only 1 clause, with a single subject and predicate.
• Predicate: part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject (e.g. ‘went home’ in ‘John went home’)
• E.g. ‘I cannot drink hot water’
  
  • ‘a day without sun is like night’

Question 95

What is sibilance?

Answer 95

• Repeated ‘s’ sounds, often described as a hissing sound. Could also be ‘sh’, ‘ch’, or a soft ‘c’.
• E.g. ‘Satan’s signature upon his face’.

Question 96

What is a stative verb?

Answer 96

• A verb that describes a state of being, in contrast to a dynamic verb, which describes in action.
• E.g. ‘hate, doubt, love, own, know, recognise, think, have’.

Question 97

What is a superlative?

Answer 97

• Of the highest quality or degree.

- E.g. ‘cleanest, happiest, bravest, fairest, most generous.’

Question 98

What are synonyms?

Answer 98

• A word, morpheme, or phrase that mean exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given lang.
• E.g. ‘happy’ = ‘cheerful, delighted, joyful, glad, jubilant, upbeat’.

Question 99

What is a transitive verb?

Answer 99

• A verb that expresses action and is followed by a direct object. Most verbs are transitive.
• E.g. ‘ate, borrow, bring, gave, hug, praise, offer, feed, buy.’

Question 100

What is an adjectival noun / noun modifier?

Answer 100

• A noun that is used as an adjective to modify other nouns.
  
  • E.g. a car that people drive in races is a ‘race car’, ‘race’ is the modifier.
  • a car with extra power or speed is a ‘sports car’, ‘sports’ is the adjectival noun.

Question 101

What is an irregular noun?

Answer 101

• nouns that do not change their form whether singular or plural.
  -> e.g. sheep, deer

Question 102

what are count nouns (enumerators)

Answer 102

• nouns that can be counted.
  -> e.g. apple, tree, balls etc.

Question 103

what are mass nouns

Answer 103

• nouns that can’t be counted -> don’t have a plural.
  -> e.g. air, rice, anger

Question 104

what are singular pronouns

Answer 104

• refer directly to a single subject/object.
  -> e.g. I, me, mine, myself

Question 105

what are plural pronouns

Answer 105

• refer to more than one person.
  -> e.g. we, us, ours, ourselves

Question 106

What is an interrogative pronoun

Answer 106

• used when asking a question -> (who, whose, which and what)

Question 107

What is an indefinite pronoun

Answer 107

• do not refer to specific persons or things.
  -> e.g. someone, anything, everything.

Question 108

What is a demonstrative pronoun

Answer 108

• points out at something or someone specific -> refers to it.
  -> E.g. ‘that, these, this’.
• however, if placed BEFORE the noun rather than replacing the noun, classed as a determiner.

Question 109

What is a relative pronoun

Answer 109

• act as linking words in a sentence always placed immediately after the noun they refer to.
  -> refers to nouns previously mentioned, whether they are people, places, things, animals, or ideas.
  -> e.g. for people: whom, who, whose.
  -> for things: which, that.

Question 110

What is the difference between pronouns and determiners

Answer 110

• A word is classed as a pronoun when it occurs independently without a noun following it:
  -> THIS (pronoun) is a new CAR (noun).
• When a noun directly follows the word it is a determiner:
  -> THIS (determiner) CAR (noun) is new.

Question 111

What is a definite article

Answer 111

• indicates something specific.
  -> e.g. ‘the’

Question 112

What is an indefinite article

Answer 112

• indicates something more specific.
  -> e.g. ‘a, an’

Question 113

What are numerical

Answer 113

• one, two, first, second etc

Question 114

What are quantifiers

Answer 114

• show quantity.
  -> ‘few, many, enough’.

Question 115

What is the main verb

Answer 115

• the single verb that expresses the main action/meaning.

Question 116

What is the auxiliary verb

Answer 116

• the helping verb, placed in front of the main verb.
• split in 2 categories: primary or modal.
• E.g. I must have been driving too fast.
  -> ‘must have’ are the auxiliary verbs.
  -> ‘driving’ is the main verb.

Question 117

What are primary verbs (auxiliary verbs)

Answer 117

only 3 primary verbs:
- to BE: Margaret is applying to Yale.
- to HAVE: Frank has just returned from a business trip.
- to DO: Nana doesn’t go out much anymore.

Question 118

What are modal verbs?

Answer 118

• modal verbs are only used with a main verb.
  -> can, will, shall, may, must, should, would, should, might.
• E.g. ‘You should move your car’
• ‘You could move your car.’
• ‘You must move your car.’

Question 119

What are active verbs / active voice

Answer 119

• If a verb is used actively, person or thing performing the action is emphasised as the subject of the verb:
  -> The minister has issued an apology.

Question 120

What are passive verbs / passive voice

Answer 120

• If the passive voice is used, the emphasis shifts to the object of the verb (the person or thing to which something has been done). The order of the sentence is reversed:
  -> An apology has been issued by the minister.
• using the passive voice can avoid drawing attention to the person responsible for an action.
• can also make the object seem helpless and a victim of whoever is doing the action.

Question 121

What are finite verbs

Answer 121

• have a definite relation with the subject or noun.
• usually the main verb of a clause or sentence.
• used only in present and past tense.
• Can be indicative of passive or active voice and also of number (singular or plural).
• E.g. He loves (main verb/finite verb) camping (non-finite) in the woods.

Question 122

What are non-finite verbs are what are the 3 types

Answer 122

• cannot be the main verb of a clause or sentence as they do not talk about the action that is being performed by the subject or noun.
• do not indicate any tense, mood, or gender.
  -> used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives.
• 3 types: gerunds, infinitives, participles.

Question 123

What are gerunds (non-finite verb)

Answer 123

• non-finite verb is used as a noun.
  -> e.g. he loves CAMPING in the woods.

Question 124

What are infinitives (non-finite verb)

Answer 124

• non-finite verbs that use ‘to’ before them.
  -> ‘I need to go to sleep’ -> here the non-finite verb phrase is ‘to sleep’.

Question 125

what are participles (non-finite verb)

Answer 125

• have ‘-ing’ or ‘-ed’ as suffixes and cause the verb to become an adjective are called participles.
  -> the ‘SLEEPING dog caused a delay’. ‘sleeping’ becomes an adjective.

Question 126

What is perfective aspect

Answer 126

• the action is complete
  -> Elizabeth scored a hat-trick of goals.

Question 127

What is progressive aspect

Answer 127

• the action is/was still continuing.
  -> Elizabeth was playing a blinder.
  -> Elizabeth is playing a blinder.
  -> We expect her to be playing well tomorrow.

Question 128

What are adverbs of manner

Answer 128

• How something is done, e.g. he talks incessantly, it was perfectly executed.

Question 129

what adverbs of place

Answer 129

• where something is happening, e.g. the book is here, we are travelling TOWARDS the right place

Question 130

What are adverbs of time

Answer 130

• when something is happening, e.g. the exam is TOMORROW, the match is happening LATER

Question 131

What are adverbs of duration

Answer 131

• how long something happens for e.g. The bridge is TEMPORARILY out of bounds.
  -> your membership is permanently cancelled.

Question 132

What are adverbs of frequency

Answer 132

What are adverbs of frequency how often something takes place e.g. Mandy visits sometimes.
-> Mandy visits frequently.

Question 133

What are adverbs of degree

Answer 133

• the extent to which something is done -> e.g. we COMPLETELY understand.
  -> we SOMEWHAT understand.

Question 134

What are possessive determiners

Answer 134

• ‘my, ours, your, his, her, its, their’

Question 135

what are demonstrative determiners

Answer 135

• ‘this, that, these, those’

Question 136

What determiners refer to quantity

Answer 136

• other determiners refer to quantity, either specifically:
• one, two, three
  or vaguely:
• some, few, many

Question 137

What are prepositions and give examples of different types

Answer 137

• shows relationship between things in terms of space, time or direction.
  -> usually goes before the determiner and noun.
• The books are underneath the bed (spatial)
• She left before the end (time)
• He moved towards the door (directional)

Question 138

What are the 4 sentence functions

Answer 138

• declaratives
• imperatives
• interrogatives
• exclamatives

Question 139

what are declaratives

Answer 139

• statements that give info.

Question 140

what are imperatives

Answer 140

• give orders, instructions, advice or directions.

Question 141

what are interrogatives

Answer 141

• ask questions

Question 142

what are exclamatives

Answer 142

• expressive function to convey force and end in an exclamation mark.

Question 143

What are the 5 sentence types

Answer 143

• minor
• simple
• compound
• complex
• compound-complex

Question 144

what are minor sentences

Answer 144

Complete and meaningful statements that don’t have a subject and verb combo.
- Lots of everyday sayings are minor sentences.
-> be quiet, goodbye, sounds good.

Question 145

What are simple sentences

Answer 145

• A simple sentence must have a subject and a verb. It should express a complete thought e.g.
  -> The snow falls. Snow is the subject, falls is the verb.

Question 146

What are complex sentences

Answer 146

• consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause (or subordinating clause) -> a subordinating conjunction connects the clauses together.
  -> E.g. when they heard the sound, the workers left the building.
• ‘When they heard the sound’ (sub clause).
• When (sub clause)
• ‘the workers left the building’ (main clause)

Question 147

What is a compound-complex sentence

Answer 147

• has at least 2 main clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction and at least 1 sub clause, e.g.
  -> some of the children went home early but the others remained because they had no transport.
• first main clause: ‘some of the children went home early’.
• coordinating conjunction: ‘but’.
• 2nd main clause: ‘the others remained’.
• sub conjunction: ‘because’.
• sub clause: ‘they had not transport’.

Question 148

What are coordinating conjunctions

Answer 148

• include: ‘and, but, or’, used when parts of sentence to be joined are of equal value.
  -> connects 2 main clauses.

Question 149

What are subordinating conjunctions

Answer 149

• connects a sub clause to a main clause.
  -> includes words ‘because, although, unless, until’.

Question 150

What is a hyperbole

Answer 150

• an exaggerated idea about something -> statements that are not meant to be taken literally.
  E.g.:
• I am freezing.
• it is a whole train of evils.

Question 151

What is an antonym

Answer 151

• a word opposite in meaning to another.
  -> e.g. bad and good.

Question 152

what is denotation

Answer 152

• the literal or primary meaning of a word, rather than the contrast to the feelings or ideas that the word suggests.
  -> E.g. the denotation of the word ‘blue’ is the colour blue, but the connotation is the feeling of sadness or the blues.

Question 153

What is logos

Answer 153

• writer/author makes clear logical connections between ideas, and includes the use of facts and stat.
• when we use cold arguments like data, stats or common sense to convince people of something rather than appeal to an audience’s emotions.
  Examples in ads:
• apple website that high lets latest features and specs.
• fruit juice ad that highlights vitamin and calorie stats.

Question 154

What is pathos

Answer 154

• writing intended to appeal to an audiences emotions -> persuade an audience by purposely evoking certain emotions to make them feel the way the author wants them feel.
  -> E.g ‘I’m not just invested in this community, I love every building, every business, every member of this town.
• If we don’t do anything, things will become much worse.

Question 155

What is ethos

Answer 155

• a rhetorical or written technique that appeals a reader’s ethics.
  -> author achieves ethos by demonstrating they are a trustworthy source of accurate info.
• refers to authority and credibility.

E.g.
- ‘as a 3 time olympic gold medallist, I can assure you that this energy drink will improve fitness’
- a commercial in which a celebrity endorses a product.