MCQ2 Flashcards
WHAT IS A PROXIMATE QUESTION?
A HOW QUESTION
WHAT IS AN ULTIMATE QUESTION?
A WHY QUESTION
WHAT YEAR WAS DNA DISCOVERED?
1869
WHO DISCOVERED DNA?
FREIDRICH MIESCHER
WHO DICOVERED THE STRUCTURE OF DNA?
WATSON AND CRICK (1962)
WHAT TERM IS USED TO DESCRIBE DNA’S STRUCTURE?
DOUBLE HELIX.
DEFINE THE TERM ‘GENES’
SECTIONS OF DNA WHICH SPECIFY AN AMINO ACID
WHAT ARE ALLELES?
ALTERNATE FORMS OF GENES THAT ARE AVAILABLE AND PROVIDE GENETIC VARIANCE
WHAT ARE CHROMOSOMES?
GENE STRINGS.
HOW MANY PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES DO HUMANS HAVE?
23
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM HERITABILITY?
THE PROPORTION IN A PHENOTYPIC TRAIT THAT IS ATTRIBUTABLE TO GENETIC VARIANCE IN A SPECIFIC POPULATION.
DEFINE THE TERM ‘GENOTYPE’
A PERSON’S GENETIC MAKEUP. HENCE IT IS DNA.
DEFINE THE TERM ‘PHENOTYPE’
REFERS TO A PERSON’S OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS DETERMINED BY BOTH GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM ‘EPIGENETICS’?
THE MODIFICATION TO GENE EXPRESSION WITHOUT AN ALTERATION TO THE DNA.
WHAT DOES DNA METHYLATION DO TO GENES?
TURNS GENES ON, ALLOWING THEM TO BE READ.
WHAT PROTEIN IS DNA WRAPPED AROUND?
HISTONES.
WHAT ARE THE 3 LAWS OF THE GENETIC OF COMPLEX TRAITS?
1) ALL TRAITS SHOW SIGNIFICANT GENETIC INFLUENCE.
2) NO TRAITS ARE 100% INHERITABLE
3) HERITABILITY IS CAUSED BY MANY GENES OF SMALL EFFECT
WHAT IS THE WILSON EFFECT?
AN EFFECT THAT ARGUES IQ BECOMES MORE HERITABLE WITH AGE.
WHAT ARE THE 2 WAYS THE BODY CAN COMMUNICATE WITH AN ORGANISM?
NEURAL PATHWAYS AND HORMONAL TRANSMISSION.
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM AUTOCRINE?
A CHEMICAL RELEASED FROM A CELL THAT EFFECTS THE CELL ITSELF.
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PARACRINE?
CHEMICAL SIGNALS WHICH SIGNAL CELLS WITHIN A SHORT DISTANCE. E.G., CYTOKINES.
DEFINE THE TERM ENDOCRINE
CHEMICALS / HORMONES RELEASED INTO THE BLOOD WHICH CAN SELECTIVELY SIGNAL TARGET ORGANS OVER A LONG DISTANCE.
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PHEROMONES?
CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS.
WHAT ARE THE 10 PRINCIPLES OF HORMONES?
1) GRAUDAL IMPACT
2) ALTER INTENSITY
3) RECIPROCAL
4) MUTLIPLE EFFECTS
5) PULSATILE SECRETION
6) CIRCADIAN VARIATION
7) METABOLIC CHANGE
8) HORMONES INTERACT
9) STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY DOES NOT MEAN FUNCTIONAL SIMILARITY
1O) REQUIRE APPROPROATE RECEPTOR
WHAT ARE HORMONES FUNCTIONALLY SIMILAR TO?
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
WHERE ARE HORMONES RELEASED TO?
THE BLOOD STREAM WHEREBY THEY THEN SPREAD TO OTHER PARTS OF THE BODY OR BRAIN
WHAT IS THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?
A SYSTEM OF GLANDS AND ORGANS WHICH PRODUCE A SUBSTANCE. EACH GLAND SECRETES A TYPE OF HORMONE.
WHAT FUNCTIONS DO HORMONES REGULATE?
METABOLISM. GROWTH. DEVELOPMENT. MOOD.
LIST SOME GLANDS / ORGANS IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS. PINEAL GLAND. PITUITARY GLAND. THYROID. THYMUS. ADRENAL GLANDS. PANCREAS.
WHAT HORMONES DOES THE HYPOTHALAMUS SECRETE?
CRH. TRH. DOPAMINE.
WHAT HORMONE DOES THE PINEAL GLAND SECRETE?
MELATONIN.
WHAT HORMONE DOES THE ADRENAL MEDULLA SECRETE?
NORADRENALINE.
WHAT HORMONE DOES THE ADRENAL CORTEX SECRETE?
GLUCOCORTICOIDS INCLUDING CORTISOL.
WHAT HORMONES DOES THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETE?
OXYTOCIN AND VASOPRESSIN / ADH.
EXPLAIN CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS?
SELF-SUSTAINING AND HARD-WIRED.
EXPLAIN DIURNAL RHYTHMS?
NOT HARD-WIRED AND ARE INFLUENCED BY EXTERNAL TRIGGERS SUCH AS LIGHT AND TEMPERATURE.
WHY ARE DAY / NIGHT CYCLES IMPORTANT?
BECUAUSE THEY INFLUENCE THE SECRETION OF HORMONES.
HORMONES ARE LIKELY …. !
BIDIRECTIONAL
HYPOTHALAMIC FUNCTIONS CAN BE SUPPRESSED BY WHICH HORMONE?
OXYTOCIN
WHICH HORMONES HAVE BEEN ASSOICATED WITH LOVE?
OXYTOCIN AND VASOPRESSIN.
WHAT DOES VASOPRESSIN REGULATE?
BLOOD VOLUME AND SALT CONCENTRATION.
WHAT ARE CYTOKINES?
A TYPE OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION USED IN SHORT-DISTANCES.
WHAT ARE 2 EXAMPLES OF CYTOKINES?
C-REACTION PROTEIN (CRP) AND INTERLEUKIN-6 (IL-6). THESE ARE ALSO INFLAMMATORY BIOMARKERS.
WHAT IS EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY?
THE SYNTHESIS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY. IT UTILIZES THE LOGIC OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY TO EXAMINE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND MENTAL PROCESSES.
WHAT ARE THE CORE ASSUMPTIONS OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY?
- ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS
- GRUADUALISM
- MASSIVE MODULARITY
- UNIVERSAL HUMAN NATURE
WHAT ARE THE 3 MAIN WAYS EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY THEORIES ARE TESTED?
- CROSS-CULUTRAL CONSISTENCY
- FUNCTION TO FORM (PROBLEM TO SOLUTION)
- FORM TO FUNCTION (SOLUTION TO PROBLEM)
WHO PROPOSED THE FIGHT AND FLIGHT RESPONSE?
CANNON IN 1932
WHAT ARE THE 2 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ANS?
SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC PATHWAYS.
WHICH PART OF THE BRAIN HAS AN ELEMENT OF CONTROL OVER THE ANS?
HYPOTHALAMUS.
WHAT IS MISATTRIBUTION OF AROUSAL?
WHEN ONE EXPERIENCES PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL AND MISTAKENLY ATTIRUBTES THIS AROUSAL TO A PERSON / SITUATION THAT DID NOT CAUSE THE AROUSAL.
WHAT DID LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN PROPOSE IN 1984?
THE COGNTITIVE APPRAISAL MODEL WHICH DEFINES STRESS.
EXPLAIN THE COGNITIVE APPRAISAL MODEL…
1) POTENTIALLY STRESSFUL EVENT IS EXPERIENCED.
2) THIS IS INTERPRETED VIA A PRIMARY APPRAISAL WHICH DEFINES IT AS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE.
3) SECONDARY APPRAISAL OCCURS - QUESTIONING HOW WE WILL OVERCOME THE STRESSFUL EVENT
4) STRESS IS DISPLAYED VIA BEHAVIOUR, COGNTIION, OR PHYSIOLOGY.
WHAT 2 PATHWAYS CAN BE ACTIVATED DURING A STRESS RESPONSE?
- SYMPATHETIC ADRENAL MEDULLARY (SAM)
*HYPOTHEALAMIC PITUITARY ADRENAL AXIS (HPA AXIS)
EXPLAIN THE SAM PATHWAY?
IS A FAST ACTING PATHWAY, WHICH SENDS MESSAGES THROUGH THE SPINAL CORD. THE ADRENAL MEDULLA RELEASES EPINEPHRINE.
EXPLAIN THE HPA AXIS
THE SLOW ACTING PATHWAY. THE HYPOTHALAMUS RELEASES A CORTICICOL RELWASING HORMONE INTO THE PITUITARY GLAND WHICH THEN RELEASSES ACTH.
HOW IS A STRESS RESPONSE ENDED?
THE HIPPOCAMPUS DETECTS CORTISOL IN THE BLOOD AND INSTRUCTS THE HYPOTHALAMUS TO REDUCE BLOOD-CORTISOL CONCENTRATIONS.
WHAT HAPPENS IF THE HPA AXIS IS OVER-ACTIVATED?
THE STRESS RESPONSE HAS NOT SHUT DOWN AND THERE IS AN OVER SECRETION OF CORTISOL, WHICH COULD DAMAGE THE FEEDBACK LOOP.
WHAT IS YERKES-DODSON LAW?
A LAW THAT SUGGESTS THAT AS AROUSAL/STRESS INCREASES SO DOES PERFORMANCE, UNTIL A CERTAIN OPTIMAL POINT - THEN HIGH AROUSAL CAUSES IMPAIRED PERFORMANCE.
EXPLAIN THE DUAL PROCESS THEORY?
PROPOSES WE HAVE TWO SYSTEMS THAT INFLUENCE HOW WE MAKE JUDGEMENTS.
1) FAST - IMMEDIATE GUT REACTIONS - HUERISTICS
2) SLOW - RATIONAL - GROUNDED IN FACTS
WHAT ARE THE COMMON ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIOURAL METHODS IN LANGUAGE?
- MENTAL CHRONOMETRY (TIME IS EFFORT)
- SPEED / ACCURACY TRADE OFF
- RESPONSE TIME REFELCTS AMOUNT OF PROCESSING
- PRIMING EFFECT
WHAT ARE THE PROBABLE RESULTS OF A CROSS-MODAL PRIMING EXPERIMENT?
WHEN WE HEAR AN AMBIGIOUS WORD, BOTH MEANINGS ARE ACTIVATED. AFTER A VERY SHORT TIME, ONLY THE CONTEXTUALLY CORRECT MEANING IS ACTIVE. THIS SUGGESTS WORDS ARE ASSOICATED AND THEN THE CONTEXT IS USED TO SUPPRESS THE WRONG MEANING.
WHAT HAPPENS IN THE FIRST STAGE OF THE ONTOGENY OF THE CORTICAL LANGUAGE NETWORK?
THE INFANT RAPIDLY ACQUIRES BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING CAPACITIES, WHICH ARE PRIMARILY IMPLEMENTED BILATERALLY IN THE TEMPORAL CORTICES.
WHAT HAPPENS IN THE SECOND STAGE OF THE ONTOGENY OF THE CORTICAL LANGUAGE NETWORK?
TOP-DOWN PROCESSES EMERGE GRADUALLY WITH THE INCREASING FUNCTIONAL SELECTIVITY AND STRUCTURAL CONNECTIVITY OF THE LEFT INFERIOR FRONTAL CORTEX.
WHAT DO DUAL STREAMS SUPPORT?
LANGUAGE PROCESSING IN THE HUMAN BRAIN
WHAT ARE BOTH STREAMS IN THE DUAL STREAMS THEORY KNOWN AS?
POSTERO-DORSAL STREAM. AND, ANTERO-VENTRAL STREAM.
WHAT DOES THE ANTERO-VENTRAL STREAM DO?
DETECTS AUDITORY OBJECTS IN A HIERARCHICAL MANNER.
WHAT DOES THE POSTERO-DORSAL STREAM DO?
PERFORMS SEQUENCE PROCESSING IN ACCORDANCE WITH A HIERARCHICALLY ORGANISED SET OF INTERNAL MODELS.
WHAT IS A DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE?
BEST DESCEIBED AS A BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINED COMPUTATIONAL COGNITIVE MECHANISM THAT YEILDS AN UNBOUNDED ARRAY OF HIEREARCHICALLY STRUCTURED EXPRESSIONS.
WHAT ARE THE 3 THEORIES OF EVOLUTIONARY TRANSITION FROM ANIMAL TO HUMAN SYNTAX?
1) COMPUTATIONAL CAPACITY
2) STRUCTURAL FLEXIBILITY
3) EVENT PERCEPTION
DEFINE SYNTAX?
A SET OF PRINCIPLES BY WHICH MEANING-BEARING UNITS CAN BE COMBINED INTO WELL-FORMED COMPLEXITIES.
DEFINE DUALITY OF PATTERNING?
A CHARACTERISTIC OF LANGUAGE BY WHICH STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IS FOUND AT TWO LEVELS:
1) MEANINGLESS PHONENES CAN BE COMBINED INTO MORPHEMES
2) MEANINGFUL PHONEMENS/WORDS CAN BE COMBINED INTO SENTENCES/PHRASES.
DEFINE COMPOSITIONALITY?
A PROCESS BY WHICH MEANING IS DETERMINED BY THE MEANINGS OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS AND THE RULES THAT COMBINE THEM.
DEFINE MERGE?
A MENTAL OPERATION THAT TAKES TWO SYNATIC ELEMENTS AND ASSEMBLES THEM TO FORM A SET.
WHO PROPOSED THE MODEL OF IMMITATION AND BEHAVIOUR PARSING?
BYRNE (2003)
EXPLAIN THE IMITATION AND BEHAVIOUR PARSING MODEL?
BY OBSERVING SEQUENCES OF ACTIONS AND NOTING RELIABLE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ACTIONS, THE OBSERVER CAN DEDUCE THE HIERARCHIAL STRUCTURE OF THE SEQUENCE.
WHAT ARE THE 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF EVENT SEGMENTATION?
1) INTERSUBJECTIVE AGREEMENT
2) CORRELATED WITH CHANGE
3) VARYING GRAIN SIZE
4) PARTONOMIC HIERARCHY
WHAT DOES PHONEMIC DIVERSITY SUGGEST?
THAT ALL LANGUAGE EVOLVES FROM A SINGLE LANGUAGE FIRST USED IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.
WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENCES THAT MAKE HUMANS CAPABLE OF LANGUAGE?
EXTENDED PERIOD OF NEOTENY IN WHICH INCREASES OUR CAPACITY FOR LEARNING.
WHAT IS BROCA’S APHASIA?
NON-FLUENT FORM OF APHASIA WHICH CAUSES SPEECH PRODUCTION DIFFICULTIES, THUS IT BECOMES EFFORTFUL AND SLOW.
WHAT IS WERNICKE’S APHASIA?
FLUENT FORM OF APHASIA WHEREIN LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION IS IMPAIRED. SPEECH IS EFFORTLESS BUT DOES NOT MAKE SENSE.
WHAT IS THE ARCUATE FASICICULUS?
WHITE MATTER PATHWAY.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE ARCUATE FASCICULUS IS DAMAGED?
APHASIA CAN OCCUR.
EXPLAIN THE WERNICKE-GESCHWIND MODEL?
INFO FROM THE WRRITEN WORD ARRVIDES FROM THE EYE INTO THE OCCIPITAL LOBE IN THE PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX. HERE IT IS PASSED INTO THE ANGULAR GYRUS AND THEN INTO WERNICKE’S AREA. THE ARCUATE FASCICULUS SENDS IT TO BROCA’S WHERE IT IS THEN PASSED TO THE MOTOR CORTEX.
WHAT IS THE SUBTRACTION METHOD?
A POSTPROCESSING TECHNIQUE THAT DIGITALLY SUBTRACTS A PRECONTRAST SEQUENCE FROM THE INDENTICAL SEQUENCE OBTAINED AFTER CONTRAST ADMINISTRATION. IT IS OFTEN USED WITH PET SCANNING.
WHAT IS SENSATION?
A PROCESS OF DETECTING A STIMULUS, THEN TRANSDUCING THE ENERGY INTO INFORMATION
WHAT IS PERCEPTION?
INVOLVES INTERPRETING THE INFORMATION GATHERED BY OUR SENSES AND BUILDING INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS.
WHAT IMPACTS PERCEPTION?
CONTEXT. EMOTIONAL STATE. PAST.
LIST THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS?
DISTAL STIMULUS - PROXIMAL STIMULUS - TRANDUCTION - ATTENTION/PROCESSING - PERCEPTION - RECOGNITION - ACTION
WHAT IS THE DISTAL STIMULUS?
THE STIMULUS IN THE ENVIRONMENT.
WHAT IS THE PROXIMAL STIMULUS?
THE PHYSICAL ENERGY FROM A STIMULUS AS IT DIRECTLY STIMULATES A SENSE ORGAN/RECEPTOR
WHAT IS TRANSDUCTION?
DESCRIBES THE CONVERSION OF ONE FORM OF ENERGY INTO ANOTHER.
WHAT ARE THE FIVE TRADITIONAL HUMAN SENSES?
VISION. AUDITION. SOMATOSENSATION/TOUCH. GUSTATION. OLFACTION.
WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM CONTRALATERAL CONTROL?
SENSATION FROM THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BODY IS PROCESSED IN THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE AND VICE VERSA.
WHY DO AFTERIMAGES OCCUR?
BECAUSE PHOTOCHEMICAL ACTIVTY IN THE RETINA CONTINUES EVEN WHEN THE EYES ARE NO LONGER EXPERIENCING THE ORIGINAL STIMULUS
WHAT IS THE PROXIMAL STIMULUS OF AUDITION?
AIR PRESSURE AND SOUND WAVES.
EXPLAIN THE RETINA?
BACK OF THE EYEBALL WHICH IS LIGHT SENSITIVE. IT CONTAINS LOTS OF RODS AND CONES AND IS PART OF THE CNS.
WHAT ARE RODS AND CONES?
PHOTORECEPTORS
RODS ARE / HAVE …
*SENSITIVITY TO LOW LIGHT LEVELS HENCE SUPPORT NIGHT VISION.
*HAVE LOW SPATIAL ACUITY
*SINGLE PHOTOPIGMENT
CONES ARE / HAVE …
- COLOUR VISION (TRICHROMATIC)
- HAVE HIGH SPATIAL ACUITY
*REQUIRE MORE LIGHT
WHAT ARE THE 3 TYPES OF CONES?
1) SHORT = BLUE
2) MEDIUM = GREEN
3) LONG = RED
WHAT ARE THE GESTALT LAWS OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION?
- PRINCIPLE OF PRAGNANZ
- LAW OF PROXIMITY
- LAW OF SIMILARITY
- LAW OF CLOSURE
- LAW OF SYMMETRY
EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF PRAGNANZ?
HOLDS THE NOTION THAT WHEN PRESENTED WOIOTH A SET OF AMBIGIOUS OR COMPLEX OBJECTS, THE BRAIN WILL MAKE THEM APPEAR AS SIMPLE AS POSSIBLE.
EXPLAIN THE LAW OF PROXIMITY?
ELEMENTS CLOSE TO EACH OTHER TEND TO PERCIEVED AS A UNIT.
EXPLAIN THE LAW OF SIMILARITY?
SIMILAR OBJECTS TEND TO BE GROUPED TOGETHER.
EXPLAIN THE LAW OF CLOSURE?
WE TEND TO FORM A CLOSED FIGURE, EVEN WHEN THERE A GAPS. E.G. THE WWF LOGO.
EXPLAIN THE LAW OF SYMMETRY?
SYMMETRICAL ELEMENTS ARE PERCEIVES AS PART OF A UNIFIED GROUP.
WHAT IS MEANT BY BOTTUM-UP?
STIMULUS DRIVEN
IS PERCEPTION BOTTOM UP OR TOP DOWN?
TOP DOWN HENCE IS SUBJECTIVE AND BASED ON EXPERIENCE.
