MCAT Psychology & Sociology Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two divisions of the nervous system?
A
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System.
2
Q
What are the main components of the central nervous system?
A
Brain and spinal cord
3
Q
What are the main components of the peripheral nervous system?
A
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
4
Q
What are the different parts of the brain?
A
cerebrum, cerebral hemisphere, brain stem, and cerebellum
5
Q
What are afferent neurons?
A
carry information into the central nervous system.
6
Q
What are efferent neurons?
A
carry information away from the central nervous system to the periphery.
7
Q
What are the basic functions of the nervous system?
A
Motor: skeletal muscle movement, tone, and posture.
Sensory: the senses
Automatic: reflexes
8
Q
What are the higher functions of the nervous system?
A
cognition, emotions, and consciousness
9
Q
Synapse
A
the place where the neuron connects and communicates with each other.
10
Q
Neuromuscular junction
A
is the synapse between a lower motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.
11
Q
What does the motor unit consist of?
A
Lower motor neurons and efferent neurons.
12
Q
What does the lower motor neurons in the cranial nerves control?
A
control the skeletal muscles of the head and the neck.
13
Q
What does the lower motor neurons in the spinal nerves control?
A
controls all of the skeletal muscle cells in the limbs and the trunk.
14
Q
What does abnormality of the motor unit result in?
A
weakness.
15
Q
What does abnormality of the lower motor unit result in?
A
lower motor neuron signs
16
Q
What are the lower motor neuron signs?
A
atrophy, fasiculations, hypotonia, hyporeflexia
17
Q
What is atrophy?
A
decreased bulk of skeletal muscle, decreased size.
18
Q
What are fasiculations?
A
involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle.
19
Q
Hypotonia
A
decreases tone.
20
Q
Hyporeflexia
A
decreased muscle stretch reflexes.
21
Q
Mechanoreceptor
A
respond to physical forces.
22
Q
Nocireceptor
A
can create the sensation of pain.
23
Q
Thermoreceptor
A
detect temperature.
24
Q
Schwann cells
A
create myelin sheath.
25
Reflex
response of a stimulus that doesn't require the involvement of consciousness.
26
Afferent reflex
bringing information about the stimulus into the central nervous system.
27
Efferent reflex
carrying information away from the central nervous system in order to induce a response in the periphery.
28
__________ neurons make up the efferent part of the reflex.
Lower motor neurons
29
__________ neurons make up the afferent part of the reflex.
Somatosensory neurons
30
What is the autonomic nervous system?
regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal, doesn't require the involvement of consciousness.
31
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.
32
What is sympathetic nervous system responsible for?
fight or flight functions.
33
What is parasympathetic nervous system responsible for?
rest and digest functions.
34
Where is most of the gray matter in the spinal cord?
The gray matter is on the inside and contains neuron somas.
35
Where is most of the white matter in the spinal cord?
The white matter is on the outside and contains myelinated axons.
36
Where is most of the gray matter in the brain?
Gray matter is on the outside of the brain.
37
What is the gray matter in the brain called?
The cerebral cortex.
38
Where is most of the white matter in the brain?
White matter is on the inside of the brain.
39
What are upper motor neurons?
controls the lower motor neurons.
40
The right side of the brain controls the _________ side of the body, in terms of controlling the skeletal muscles.
left
41
What is the corticospinal tract?
upper motor neurons that will control lower motor neurons in the spinal cord.
42
What is the corticobulbar tract?
upper motor neurons that will control lower motor neurons in the brain stem.
43
Upper motor neuron abnormality
can occur with or without weakness.
44
What are the upper motor neuron abnormality signs?
- Hyperreflexia
- Clonus
- Hypertonia
- Extensor Plantar Response
45
Hyperreflexia
increase in muscle stretch reflexes.
46
Clonus
rhythmic contraction of antagonist muscles.
47
Antagonist muscles
muscles that have opposite effects on the joints.
48
Hypertonia
increased tone of skeletal muscles.
49
Extensor Plantar Response
toes move away from the bottom of the foot when bottom of foot is scraped. Normal response is toes flex and go towards bottom of foot.
50
What are the four parts of the cerebral cortex?
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe
51
What is the frontal lobe responsible for?
Motor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
Broca's area
52
Motor Cortex is responsible for...
body movements.
53
Prefrontal Cortex is responsible for....
executive functions such as thinking and problem solving, supervises and directs all areas of the brain.
54
Broca's Area
part of the brain that is associated with speech production.
55
What is the parietal lobe responsible for?
somatosensory cortex and spatial processing.
56
What is the somatosensory cortex?
associated with feeling, receives information from all over the body about touch, and pressure, and temperature, and pain.
57
Sensorimotor cortex
motor cortex + somatosensory cortex
58
What is the occipital lobe responsible for?
vision
59
What is the temporal lobe responsible for?
auditory processing, Wernicke's area.
60
What is Wernicke's area?
responsible for language reception and language comprehension.
61
What is the function of the corpus callosum?
allows for the communication between the left and right hemispheres.
62
What are some parts of the old brain, the primitive brain structures?
brain stem, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum
63
What are the two structures that the brain stem consists of?
medulla and pons
64
Reticular formation
acts as a filter and extends into the thalamus.
65
Thalamus
acts as a relay station
66
Cerebellum
coordinate voluntary movement.
67
Contralateral
the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.
Exception: smell
68
Dominant hemisphere
right handed people are left brained.
69
Which hemisphere is the dominant for the vast majority of people?
Left hemisphere
70
What are the parts of the dominant hemisphere?
Broca's area and Wernicke's area
71
What are the parts of the non-dominant hemisphere?
emotional tone and language
72
Brainstem
connects all the parts of the nervous system.
73
Hypothalamus
Link between endocrine and nervous system.
74
Pituitary gland
is the master gland of all glands. Controls the functions of many of the other endocrine glands.
75
Primary cortex
performs basic motor or sensory function.
76
Association cortex
associating different types of function to perform more complex functions.
77
Which hemisphere of the brain is language predominant in?
the left hemisphere
78
Which hemisphere of the brain is attention predominant in?
the right hemisphere
79
Neurotransmitters
are molecules that communicate between neurons and their target cells and chemical synapses.
80
Is glutamate a stimulatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter?
stimulatory
81
What are the inhibitory neurotransmitters?
GABA in the brain and Glycine in the spinal cord
82
Substantia Nigra
sends axons releasing dopamine to a couple of nuclei deep in the cerebral hemisphere.
83
What is the disease that is associated with a problem of substantia nigra getting dopamine into striatum?
Parkinson's disease
84
Cerebral localization
specific parts of the brain could control specific behavior, thoughts, and personality.
85
Broca's Aphasia
loss of ability to understand or express speech. Damage to Broca's area.
86
How can we study brain structure?
CAT scans and MRI
87
What is EEG?
measures the electrical activity that is generated by neurons in the brain.
88
What is MEG?
Magnetic fields that are produced by the electrical currents in the brain
89
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging, active parts of brain use more oxygen compared to inactive ones.
90
PET
positron emission spectroscopy, radioactive glucose injected. Active parts of brain use more glucose compared to inactive parts.
91
Endocrine system
system of glands that produce chemical messages called hormones.
92
What are three different classes of hormones?
1. proteins and polypeptide hormones
2. steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol
3. Tyrosine derivatives: derived from tyrosine.
93
What are some of examples of tyrosine derivative hormones?
thyroid and catecholamines.
94
Autocrine hormones
hormones that elicit a response in the cells that made them or the cell immediately next to the cell that makes the hormone.
95
Paracrine hormones
hormones that elicit a regional response.
96
Endocrine hormones
function at a distance in the body.
97
Thyroid gland
regulates our body's metabolism
98
parathyroid gland
regulates our body's calcium levels.
99
What are the two parts of the adrenal gland?
cortex and medulla
100
What hormones does the cortex of the adrenal gland release?
cortisol and aldosterone which regulate fluid volume and stress response.
101
What hormone does the medulla of the adrenal gland release?
catecholamine.
102
Which hormones does the gonads stimulate?
FSH and LH
103
Gonads
release sex hormones, estrogen in female and testosterone in males.
104
Pancreas
release insulin and glucagon that regulate blood glucose levels.
105
Proprioception
knowing where you are in space.
106
Weber's Law
delta I/I = k
Rate of increment threshold to background intensity is constant
107
Just noticeable difference (jnd) a.k.a difference threshold
threshold at which you are able to notice an increase or a change.
108
Absolute threshold
minimum intensity of a stimulus that is needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
109
Subliminal
stimulus that we cannot detect 50% of the time.
110
The Vestibular system
sense of balance and spatial orientation.
111
cochlea
portion of inner ear that is full of specialized auditory receptors that process sound and send information about it to our brain.
112
otolithic organs
helps us detect linear acceleration and head positioning.
113
Signal detection theory
at what point is a signal strong enough that we are able to notice it.
114
If signal is present and I say yes
hit
115
If signal is present and I say no
miss
116
If signal is absent and I say yes
false alarm
117
If signal is absent and I say no
correct rejection
118
Conservative strategy
no unless you are 100% sure that the signal is present.
119
Liberal strategy
always say yes
120
Bottom-Up Processing
stimulus influences our perception.
Ex: what am I seeing?
121
Top-Down Processing
uses your background knowledge to influence perception.
Ex: Is that something I've seen before?
122
Gestalt Principles
explains how we perceive things the way we do.
123
Law of similarity
items that are similar are grouped together.
124
Law of pragnanz
reality is reduced to its simplest form.
125
Law of proximity
objects that are close together are grouped together.
126
Law of continuity
lines are seen as following the smoothest path.
127
Law of closure
objects grouped together are seen as a whole.
128
What are monocular depth cues?
motion parallex and interposition
129
Motion parallex
objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer (or camera) than they would if they were at a greater distance
130
Interposition
distances of two separate objects are judged based on the fact that one object partially obscures or overlaps the other object.
131
Binocular disparity
relies on different images seen by each eye to determine depth but it still takes each image as a separate piece of information.
132
Convergence
relies on both eyes working together to create a single image that helps to determine depth.
133
What is the sclera?
serves to protect the eye, and it also serves as an attachment point for muscles so we can move our eyeball around.
134
Cornea
Transparent, protects front of eye and serves to bend just a little bit of light.
135
Conjunctiva
thin layer of epithelial cells that protects the cornea from friction, helps moisturize cornea.
136
Aqueous humor
found inside of cornea, chamber filled with water and salt.
137
Lens
(biconvex) can change shape, get thinner or thicker depending on whether an object is nearby or far away.
138
_____________ change the shape of the lens.
ciliary muscle and suspensory ligaments change the shape of the lens.
139
Iris
actually the part of the eye that is colored.
140
Pupil
hole, size of hole controlled by iris.
141
Vitreous humor
transparent, helps suspend the lens in place and provides some structure for the eye.
142
Retina
coats entire back of the eyeball.
143
What cells are retina made out of?
photoreceptors
144
Optic nerve
retina sends fiber through optic nerve which gets sent to the brain.
145
Choroid
network of blood vessels that nourishes the retinal cells and other cells within the eye.
146
Fovea
in the very center filled with cones and allows us to see very high in detail.
147
What are the two important cells that the retina contains?
rod and cone
148
Rods
really sensitive to light and really good for night vision.
149
Cones
responsible for color vision
there are red, green, blue cones.
150
Phototransduction cascade
sets of things that occur as soon as light hits a rod or a cone.
151
What happens when the light hits retina?
1. light hits retina
2. Rod turns off
3. This turns on bipolar cells.
4. Turns on retinal ganglion cell which sends axon to optic nerve.
5. Optic nerve gives information to brain.
152
What proteins are contained in the disks of rods?
Rhodopsin
153
Explain the steps of phototransduction cascade.
1. Retinal sits in rhodopsin.
2. Light hits retinal and changes conformation from bent to being straight.
3. Rhodopsin changes shape.
4. Transducin breaks away from rhodopsin
5. Alpha subunit comes to another part of disk and bonds to protein called phophodiesterase.
6. Phosphodiesterase converts cGMP to GMP.
7. Decrease in cGMP, causes sodium channels to close.
8. Cell hyperpolarizes and turns off.
154
Why are rods on when there is no light?
sodium channels are open.
155
Photoreceptors
very specialized type of nerve that's able to take in light and convert it into a neural impulse.
156
Where are rods found?
in the periphery of the eye.
157
Where are cones found?
near the fovea.
158
Differences between rods and cones
rods: sensitive to light, tells us whether or not light is present.
slow recovery time: it takes a lot longer for the rod to be able to fire another action potential.
cones: are not sensitive to light, results in color vision
cones have fast recovery time.
159
Blind spot
back of fovea, no photoreceptors are present in this area.
160
Optic chiasm
the point where the optic nerves coming from left and right eye converge.
161
All light that hits the ____________ side of either eyeball does not cross the optic chiasm.
temporal side.
162
All information entering the eye from the right visual field goes to the ________ side of the brain.
left
163
Trichromatic theory of color vision
human eyes only perceive three colors of light: red, blue, and green.
164
Parvo pathway
responsible for figuring out what the shape of an object is. Allows us to see things in color.
Has high spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution.
165
If something is moving we cannot use _________________ pathway we use __________________ pathway.
parvo pathway
magno pathway
166
Magnopathway
set of specialized cells that allow us to encode motion.
high temporal resolution, poor spatial resolution, does not encode color.
167
Parallel Processing
being able to see color, form, and motion all at the same time.
168
Photopic vision
occurs at high light levels.
169
Mesopic vision
occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones.
170
Scotopic vision
occurs at very low levels of light.
171
Selective attention
ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli.
172
Joint Attention
focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.
173
Divided Attention
occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.
174
Directed Attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task.
175
How does a sound wave move through the ear?
pinna
auditory canal
eardrum, eardrum starts to vibrate and causes 3 bones (malleus, incus, stapes) to vibrate.
stapes attached to oval window
cochlea contains fluid, fluid goes all around cochlea until it reaches tip of cochlea.
Fluid goes in reverse direction and goes through a round window.
176
What is the organ of corti composed of?
basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane.
177
External ear
from the pinna including the external auditory meatus and tympanic membrane.
178
Middle ear
malleus incus stapes
179
Inner ear
cochlea and semicircular canal
180
Describe structure of cochlea
cochlea has hair cells on basilar membrane, the hair cell contain a sharp edge that is called hair bundle.
Hair bundle has a protein called kinocillium and tip link.
These are attached to a gate of potassium channel
potassium and calcium flow into cell
cell fires an action potential
spiral ganglion activated
another cell activated
signal goes to brain.
181
Basilar tuning
brain is able to differentiate between sounds with a very high frequency and sounds with a very low frequency.
182
Which hair cells are activated in the cochlea by high frequency sounds?
hair cells at the base of the cochlea.
183
Which hair cells are activated in the cochlea by low frequency sounds?
hair cells at the very apex of the cochlea.
184
Primary Auditory cortex
found in the brain, responsible for receiving all of the information from the cochlea.
185
Tonotypical Mapping
mapping of sounds with a higher frequency vs. sounds of a lower frequency.
186
Cochlear Implant
surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals that have sensorineural hearing loss.
187
Sensorineural hearing loss
nerve deafness.
188
Sensory Adaptation
a change over time and the responsiveness of the sensory receptor to a constant stimulus.
189
Adaptation
different cells in our body responding to a change in stimulus.
190
What results in down regulation of sensory receptor in our body?
sensory adaptation
191
What results in up regulation of stimulus in environment?
amplification
192
Sensory strip
a specialized part of the brain that receives sensory input from entire body.
193
Sensory strip contains ___________.
somatosensory homunculus
194
Kinesthesia
movement of body
195
Somatosensory homunculus
map of body in our brain.
196
What receptor is both responsible for pain and temperature?
TRPV1
197
How is the TRPV1 receptor activated?
activated by changes in temperature and molecules such as capsaicin.
198
Ruffini cylinder
has a large receptive field and responds to stretch.
199
Merkel receptor
has a small receptive field and is important in sensing fine details.
200
Meissner corpuscle
has a small receptive field and is important in grip control.
201
Pacinian corpuscle
has a fast adapting (FA II) mechanoreceptor that fires to on and off stimulus and responds to vibration.
202
Phantom pain
is the perception of pain in an area of the body which has been removed or lost due to injury.
203
Pheromones
chemical signal that is released by one member of a species and is sensed by another member of the species triggering an innate response.
204
What important structure is found in the nasal passage?
olfactory epithelium
205
What structure makes up the olfactory epithelium?
accessory olfactory epithelium
206
Accessory olfactory epithelium
sends projections to accessory olfactory bulb.
207
What structure is found in the accessory olfactory epithelium?
vomeronasal system
208
What cells make up the vomeronasal system?
apical cell and basal cells.
209
Describe the set of steps that take place in the vomeronasal system.
1. molecule activates receptor on basal cell.
2. basal cell will send axon through accessory olfactory epithelium.
3. accessory olfactory bulb.
4. synpase onto glomerulus
5. mitral or tufted cell
6. send axon to brain
210
Amygdala
part of brain responsible for emotion and aggression.
211
signal transduction
molecule binds to receptor.
212
Do humans rely on pheromones?
Very little
213
Do humans have an accessory olfactory bulb?
No
214
Olfactory bulb
bundle of nerves sends little projections through the cribiform plate into the olfactory epithelium.
215
Cribiform plate
separates brain from olfactory epithelium.
216
How does odor signal to the brain?
1. odor
2. GPCR
3. G-protein activated
4. Ion channel
5. Action potential
6. Mitral/Tufted cell
7. Brain
217
Olfaction is
smell
218
Gustation is
taste
219
What are five different things humans can taste?
1. bitter
2. salt
3. sweet
4. sour
5. umami- glutamate
220
Gustatory cortex
part of brain that receives input from various taste cells.
221
Which tastes are involved in PCR pathway?
sweet, umami, bitter
222
Which tastes are involved in ion channels?
sour, salty.
223
Chorda tympani
branch of the 7th cranial nerve and transmits information from receptors in the anterior region of the tongue to the brain.
224
The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves
9th and 10th cranial nerves transmit information from the posterior region of the tongue and the throat to the brain.
225
Taste is perceived from ________ side while vision, hearing, and touch input is mostly _________.
ipsilateral; contralateral
226
Labeled-Line theory of olfaction
describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to a specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain.
227
Vibrational Theory of olfaction
asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile.
228
Steric theory of olfaction (shape theory)
asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key model.
229
Gate theory of olfaction
is a theory of the processes of nociception not olfaction.
230
Aphasia
describes the loss of the ability to process or create language.
231
Agnosia
describes the loss of the ability to process sensory stimuli in a single modality.
232
Anosmia
describes the inability to perceive an odor.
233
Orbitofrontal cortex
first place in the brain where the olfaction and gustation systems integrate.
234
Consciousness
awareness of our selves and our environment.
235
Sleep Stage 1 (N1)
states between sleep and wakefulness. Theta waves are present. In this stage people experience hypnagonic hallucinations and hypnic jerks.
236
Hypangonic hallucinations
include hearing or seeing things that are not there.
237
Hypnic jerks
feeling of falling or muscle twitches.
238
Stage 2 Sleep (N2)
slightly deeper stage of sleep, harder to wake person up, more theta waves, K complexes and sleep spindles are present at this stage.
239
K-complex
suppress cortical arousal, help with sleep-based memory consolidation.
240
Sleep spindles
bursts of rapid rhythmic brain activity.
241
Sleep Stage 3 (N3)
slow wave sleep, delta waves. Really difficult to wake person up.
242
At which stage of sleep does sleep walking and sleep talking occur?
Stage 3 sleep (slow wave sleep)
243
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep
paralysis of muscles, active mind.
244
Sleep cycle
N1 ---> N2 ---> N3 ---> N2 ---> REM ---> N1
245
Circadian rhythm
regular bodily rhythms across a 24 hour period.
246
Freud's idea of why we dream
dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that needs to be interpreted.
247
Infants spend most time in ________ sleep.
REM
248
Freud's manifest content
what is happening in our dreams, the content of our dreams.
249
Freud's latent content
hidden meaning behind a dream.
250
Activation-Synthesis hypothesis
dreams are simply a part of our brain, the frontal part of the cerebral cortex trying to make sense of electrical impulses in our brain stem.
251
Insomnia
persistent problems in falling or staying asleep.
252
Narcolepsy
disorder when people can't help themselves from falling asleep.
253
Sleep apnea
people stop breathing while they sleep. No N3 sleep (slow-wave sleep).
254
What is sleep apnea called when there is a problem in the airway?
Obstructive sleep apnea.
255
What is sleep apnea called when there is a problem in the brain?
central sleep apnea, problem with control system for ventilation.
256
Polysomnography
sleep study
257
Cheynes-Stroke breathing
crescendo-descrescendo pattern of breathing in central sleep apnea that is a result of heart failure, strokes, and renal failure.
258
What is sleep apnea called when there is a problem in the lungs?
hypoventilation, CO2 increases, O2 decreases. Problems with lungs/chest, due to drugs such as narcotic painkillers, obesity. Right sided heart failure.
259
Arrhythmia
abnormal heart rhythms over time.
260
polycythemia
very elevated amount of red blood cells in our blood.
261
Hypnosis
is a changed state of awareness and increased relaxation that allows for improved focus and concentration.
262
Meditation
training people to self regulate their attention and awareness.
263
Beta endorphin
opioid neuropeptide that have a role in pain perception, some behavioral patterns, and obesity.
264
GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter and has a role in decreasing anxiety.
265
Serotonin
important in mood regulation, memory, and sleep.
266
Arm
refers to a group of participants in a randomized controlled trial, who are allocated a particular treatment.
267
Placebo comparator
only the placebo was administered.
268
Experimental arm
group receiving the treatment to be tested.
269
Sham comparator
mock therapy
270
Active comparator arm
group of participants who receive a treatment that is considered effective.
271
Nicotine
agonist of acetylcholine receptor.
272
Positive symptoms
delusions, hallucinations.
273
Negative symptoms
loss of emotional affect and social withdrawal.
274
What are the four dopamine pathways?
nigrostriatal, mesocortical, mesolimbic, tuberoinfundibular.
275
Nigrostriatal pathway
associated with motor planning and purposeful movement.
276
Mesocortical pathway
associated with cognition, affect, and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
277
Tuberoinfundibular pathway
one of the major dopamine pathways in the brain originating from hypothalamus. Release of dopamine regulates prolactin secretion by the pituitary gland.
278
Chronotype
time which person feels most alert.
279
Dopamine
associated with reward, learning, and attention.
280
Serotonin
associated with mood, appetite, social behavior, and memory.
281
Hypocretin/orexin
in the central nervous system, controls sleep and arousal.
282
Psychoactive drugs
drugs that alter our consciousness.
283
What are the four main classes of psychoactive drugs?
1. depressants
2. hallucinogens
3. stimulants
4. opiates
284
What effect do stimulants have?
excite our central nervous system. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness.
285
What are some examples of stimulants?
caffeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, ectasy.
286
What effect do hallucinogens have?
distorted perceptions. Hallucinations, sensations.
287
What are some examples hallucinogens?
LSD, psilosibian, peyote,
288
What effect do opioids have?
depress central nervous system functions; decrease heart rate, blood pressure.
289
Analgesic
reduce the perception of pain. Ex: morphine and heroin.
290
__________ disrupts REM sleep.
Alcohol
291
What are the side effects of barbiturates?
reduced memory, judgement, and concentration.
292
Are benzodiazepenes inhibitory or stimulatory neurotransmitters?
inhibitory, enhances brain's response to GABA.
293
Explain the biochemical pathway of benzodiazepenes.
1. benzodiazepenes open up GABA activated channels in neurons.
2. This allows more chloride ions to enter the neuron and make it more negatively charged.
3. This makes the neuron more resistant to excitation.
294
Which benzodiazepenes are preferred for insomnia?
short acting benzodiazepenes and intermediate acting benzodiazepenes.
295
Which benzodiazepenes are preferred for anxiety?
long-acting benzodiazepenes.
296
Why are opiates used to treat pain?
opiates act at body's receptor sites for endorphins.
297
Cocaine
releases dopamine, serotonin, norephinephrine. Depletes brain's supply.
298
Ectasy
increases dopamine and serotonin leading to feeling of euphoria.
299
LSD
interferes with serotonin transmission. Visual as opposed to auditory.
300
What are the different routes for drug entry?
oral, inhalation, injection, transdermal, and intramuscular.
301
Describe the oral route of entry.
swallow substance, slowest route of entry because it has to go through gastrointestinal tract.
302
Describe the inhalation route of entry.
smoke or snorted faster.
303
Describe the injection route of entry.
intravenous injection, goes right into blood vein.
304
What is the transdermal route of entry?
drug is absorbed through the skin.
305
What is the intramuscular route of entry?
needle is stuck directly into the muscle, can be very fast.
306
Describe the reward pathway in the brain.
1. dopamine is produced in the ventral tegemental area (VTA).
2. Dopamine is send to the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens.
307
Prefrontal cortex is responsible for...
attention and planning.
308
Nucleus accumbens is responsible for...
controls body's motor functions.
309
Hippocampus is responsible for...
found in the temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of memories.
310
What part of the brain is the VTA found?
midbrain
311
With the continued activation of this reward circuit, ____________ goes up at the same time a neurotransmitter called ______________ goes down.
dopamine; serotonin
312
Tolerance
getting used to substance so that you need more of it in order to acheive the same effect.
313
Withdrawal
when you don't take substance anymore, after a prolonged period of time.
314
Intoxication
drug exerts its effect on somebody.
315
Mania
moods that are too high.
316
Psychosis
loss of contact with reality.
317
Can we develop substance use disorder with caffeine?
drug addiction treatment.
318
Detoxification
flush out all the toxins from the body.
319
Methadone
opioid agonist, activates opioid receptor. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal symptoms.
320
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
patients learn to recognize problematic thought patterns and develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors.
321
Motivational enhancement therapy
working with the patient to find intrinsic motivation to change.
322
Relapse
recovering addict takes substance again after treatment.
323
Why do excess amounts of caffeine beverages cause jitters?
caffeine inhibits an enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts.
324
Mescaline
psychedelic that acts as norephinephrine.
325
Haloperidol
is an antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia.
326
Anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic
requires a person to create a set point or anchor. The answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor.
327
Representativeness heuristic
when a decision's probability is judged based on how similar or representative the aspect is to a specific person, group, or population.
328
Availability heuristic
is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples.
329
Affect heuristic
involves an individual making a decision based on emotion.
330
Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can be alleviated through the use of __________.
benzodiazepenes.
331
Longitudinal study
follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations.
332
Observational study
researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups. A type of study in which individuals are observed or certain outcomes are measured.
333
Quasi-Experimental Design
A quasi-experiment is an empirical interventional study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on target population without random assignment.
334
3 x 2 factorial design
2 independent variables each with three levels.
335
Cross tolerance
Cross-tolerance is a phenomenon that occurs when tolerance to the effects of a certain drug produces tolerance to another drug.
336
Franz Gall
phrenology; associated development of a trait with growth of its relevant part in the brain.
337
extirpation
various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioral consequences are observed.
338
William James
father of American psychology, pushed for importance of studying adaptations of the individual to his or her environment.
339
Functionalism
studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.
340
John Dewey
argued for studying the entire organism as a whole.
341
Hermann von Helmholtz
measured the speed of a nerve impulse.
342
Sir Charles Sherrington
inferred the existence of synapses.
343
What are the three different types of nerve cells in the nervous system?
Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
344
What is the function of sensory neurons?
transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
345
What is the function of motor neurons?
transmit motor information from the brain spinal cord to muscles and glands.
346
What is the function of interneurons?
They are located in the brain and spinal cord and linked to reflexive behavior.
347
What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
somatic and autonomic
348
What does the somatic nervous system consist of?
sensory and motor neurons.
349
What does the autonomic nervous system consist of?
regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions.
350
What is the function of the meninges?
help protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid.
351
What are the three layers of the meninges?
dura mater, arachnoid mater, and the pia mater.
352
What is the cerebrospinal fluid?
is the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest.
353
What is the limbic system?
a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory.
354
What is the cerebral cortex?
outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.
355
Where is the hindbrain located?
located where the brain meets the spinal cord.
356
What is the function of the hindbrain?
controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking.
357
What is function of the medulla oblongata?
is a lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
358
What is the function of the midbrain?
above the hindbrain is the midbrain; which receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body.
359
What is the function of the forebrain?
has the greatest influence on human behavior, associated with complex, perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes.
360
regional cerebral bloodflow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
361
regional cerebral bloodflow (rCBF)
detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
362
What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus?
referred to as the hunger center, has special receptors that detect when the body needs more food or fluids.
363
What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus?
referred to as the hunger center, has special receptors that detect when the body needs more food or fluids.
364
What is the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus?
provides signals to stop eating.
365
What is the function of the anterior hypothalamus?
controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature.
366
The __________ gland secretes a hormone called melatonin which regulates circadian rhythms.
pineal gland.
367
What is the function of the basal ganglia?
coordinate muscle movement.
368
What are the primary components of the limbic system?
septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus.
369
Septal nuclei
contains one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain.
370
What is the function of the hippocampus?
plays a vital role in learning and memory processes.
371
anterograde amnesia
not being able to establish new long-term memories.
372
retrograde amnesia
refers to memory loss of events before brain injury.
373
Where is the neurotransmitter acetylcholine found?
acetylcholine found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems.
374
What is the function of acetylcholine in the central nervous system?
acetylcholine has been linked to attention and arousal.
375
What is the function of acetylcholine in the peripheral nervous system?
transmit nerve impulses to the muscles.
376
Which neurotransmitters are catecholamines?
epinephrine, norephinephrine, dopamine
377
What are the functions of epinephrine and norepinephrine?
involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness.
378
What is the difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine?
norepinephrine acts on a more local level while epinephrine acts on a more systematic level.
379
What is the function of dopamine?
normally found in the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability.
380
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.
381
Parkinson's disease
is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia.
382
What is the function of serotonin?
play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming.
383
Oversupply of serotonin is thought to produce _____________, undersupply is thought to produce ___________.
manic states; depression.
384
What is the function of GABA?
produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and plays a role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. GABA exerts its effect by causing hyperpolarization of the post synaptic membrane.
385
What is the function of glycine?
serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron which hyperpolarizes the post synaptic membrane.
386
What type of neurotransmitter is glutamate?
excitatory neurotransmitter.
387
The Babinski reflex
The big toes extends while the other toes fan outward.
388
The grasping reflex
infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand.
389
What are the two classes of motor skills?
gross and fine motor skills.
390
Gross motor skills
incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion.
Ex: sitting, crawling, and walking.
391
Fine motor skills
involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes.
392
Parallel play
in which children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behavior.
393
The Moro reflex
the infant extends the arms, then slowly withdraws them and cries.
394
The rooting reflex
infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek.
395
Exogenous cues
external cues, we have to look for them in order for them to capture our attention.
396
Endogenous cues
more internalized, they involve the internal knowledge and the intention to follow it.
397
Cocktail Party Effect
ability to attend to one voice even amidst other voices.
398
Inattentional blindness
we are not consciously aware of things that happen in our visual field when attention is directed elsewhere.
399
Change blindness
fail to notice changes in the environment. Fail to notice a difference between a previous state and a current state.
400
Priming
is an effect where exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus.
401
Resource Model of Attention
we have limited resources when it comes to attention.
402
Covert orienting
is the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement.
403
Over orienting
a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.
404
Selective Attention
describes the ability to sustain attention during distraction.
405
Divided Attention
occurs when 2 or more tasks must be completed simultaneously.
406
Attentional capture
occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus.
407
Neglect syndrome
occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.
408
Internal validity
describes the extent that a study is able to show cause-effect relationship between the variables tested in the study.
409
External validity
describes the extent that the results of a study can be generalized or repeated in multiple settings.
410
The good-subject tendency
refers to the tendency of participants to act according to what they think the experimenter wants.
411
The Hawthorne Effect
occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior specifically due to awareness of being observed.
412
Vigilance
like active search, selective attention, and divided attention is a type of attention described as main functions.
413
Alerting attention
is affected by regular aging.
414
Orienting attention
involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus.
415
Executive attention
involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior.
416
Endorphins
natural painkillers produced in the brain.
417
What is the pathway for a stimulus to reach conscious perception?
sensory receptor -----> afferent neuron -----> sensory ganglion ----> spinal cord ----> brain.
418
What are the two blood vessels that supply the eye with nutrients?
choroidal vessels and retinal vessels.
419
What is the function of the cornea?
gather and focuses the incoming light.
420
What is the function of the pupil?
allows passage of light from the anterior to posterior chamber.
421
What is the function of the iris?
controls the size of the pupil.
422
What is the function of the ciliary body?
produces aqueous humor, accommodation of the lens.
423
What is the function of the canal of Schlemm?
drains aqueous humor.
424
What is the function of lens?
refracts the incoming light to focus it on the retina.
425
What is the function of the retina?
detects images.
426
What is the function of the sclera?
provides structural support.
427
linear acceleration in the ear is detected by the ____________ and rotational acceleration in the ear is detected by the __________.
utricle and saccule
semicircular canals
428
short term memory is primary housed in the _______.
Hippocampus.
429
Information Processing Model
proposes that our brains are similar to computers, we get input from the environment, process it, and output decisions.
430
Sensory memory
first interacts with the information in your environment.
431
What are the two types of sensory memory?
iconic memory and echoic memory.
432
What is iconic memory?
memory for what you see.
433
What is echoic memory?
memory for what you hear.
434
Working memory
whatever you are thinking about right at this moment.
435
What are the two types of long term memory?
explicit and implicit.
436
What is explicit memory?
facts or events that you can clearly describe.
437
What is implicit memory?
things that you may not be able to articulate; procedural memory.
438
What are the two types of explicit memory?
semantic memory and episodic memory.
439
Semantic memory
having to do with words.
440
Episodic memory
memory for events
441
How does priming contribute to implicit memory?
previous experience influences your current interpretation of an event.
442
Encoding
moving information from the temporary store in your working memory into the permanent store in your long term memory.
443
What are the different encoding strategies?
rote rehersal, chunking, and mnemonic devices.
444
What is rote rehersal?
say the same thing over and over again.
445
What is chunking?
group the information that we are getting into meaningful units.
446
Mnemonic devices
memory devices that help you link what you're trying to learn into previously existing information.
447
What is self referencing?
think about new information and how it relates to you personally.
448
Spacing
spread out study sessions over time.
449
What are two different types of retrieval cues?
context dependent memory and state-dependent memory.
450
Context dependent memory
when you are retrieving information, being in the same environment that you encoded that information is helpful.
451
State dependent memory
state can refer to your mood, or any other internal state.
452
Retrieval
pull something out of your long term memory and bring it into working memory.
453
Primacy effect
where you have a high probability of recall for the first items on the list.
454
Recency effect
tend to remember the last few things in a sequence.
455
Source monitoring
keeping track of where various information came from.
456
Flashbulb memories
highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid.
457
Synaptic plasticity
ability of synapses to change their strength.
458
Long term potentiation
as synapses are strengthened and the strength is retained; this leads to more easy recall of previous experiences.
459
What was Ebbinghaus famous for?
studied memory decay and relearning.
460
Retroactive interference
is interference where learning a new piece of information reaches back and impairs ability to retrieve something you used to know.
461
Proactive interference
something you learned in the past gets in the way of your ability to learn and retrieve something correctly in the future.
462
What part of memory declines with aging?
recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention.
463
What part of memory is stable with aging?
implicit memory and recognition memory.
464
What part of memory improves with aging?
semantic memory, crystallized intelligence, and emotional reasoning.
465
What is crystallized intelligence?
ability to use knowledge and experience.
466
Dementia
decline in memory and other cognitive functions; most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's disease.
467
Korsakoff's syndrome
lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine in the brain; severe memory loss.
468
Wernicke's encephalopathy
precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome, poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, memory loss.
469
Semantic network
concepts are linked together based on similar meaning.
470
What is the relationship between node link strength and association in learning?
As node link strength increases, the degree of association increases. This reduces the processing time.
471
Content validity
is a measure of comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct.
472
Retest reliability
measures stability and examines whether or not results are consistent over time.
473
Interrater reliability
measures whether or not different test administrators give the same score.
474
Concurrent validity
measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test.
475
Paivio's dual coding theory
states that both verbal association and visual images are used to store and process information.
476
Situational Modification
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems.
477
What are Piaget's Stages of Cognitive development?
1. sensorimotor stage
2. preoperational stage
3. concrete operational stage
4. formal operational stage
478
What is the sensorimotor stage?
0-2 yrs
object permanence: infants don't recognize that objects still exist even though they can't see them.
479
What is the pre-operational stage?
2-7 yrs
pretend play, children at this stage are very egocentric.
480
What is the concrete operational stage?
7-11 yrs
conservation, math
481
What is the formal operational stage?
12+ years
abstract, sophisticated moral reasoning
482
What are schemas?
mental models, use them as frameworks by which we organize and interpret new information.
483
Assimilation
describes how we interpret new experiences in terms of our current understanding.
484
Accommodation
how we later adjust our schemas to better incorporate new experiences.
485
What are some of the methods of problem-solving?
Trial and Error
Algorithm
Heuristic
486
What is trial and error?
take random guesses until something finally works.
487
What is algorithm?
logical, step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit on the right one.
488
What is heuristic?
mental shortcut that allows us to find a solution more quickly.
489
Fluid Intelligence
consists of problem solving skills.
490
Crystallized Intelligence
related to the use of learned skills and knowledge.
491
Delirium
rapid fluctuations in cognitive development.
492
Functional Fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner.
493
Deductive Reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.
494
Inductive Reasoning
create a theory via generalizations, start with specific instances and draw conclusion from them.
495
Fixation
getting stuck on a wrong approach.
496
Incubation
letting a problem sit in your mind while you are not really thinking about it.
497
Decision
making a judgement about the desirability or the probability of some outcome.
498
Availability Heuristic
use examples that come to mind to solve problems.
499
Representativeness Heuristic
we judge the probability of an event based on our existing prototype or general concept of what is typical.
500
Base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information.
501
What is overconfidence?
more confident than correct.
502
What is belief perseverance?
inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.
503
Confirmation Bias
actively seek out information that confirms your existing beliefs.
504
Framing
how you present the decision.
505
Intuition
defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.
506
Recognition-primed decision model
sorting through a wide variety information to match a pattern.
507
Emotion
is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.
508
What is intelligence?
mental quality, allowing you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations.
509
General Intelligence theory proposed by Charles Spearmen
people who score really well on one type of test also tend to score really well in other types of tests. Characterized by g factor.
510
What are Robert Sternberg's multiple intelligences in his Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?
analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.
511
What is analytical intelligence?
academic abilities or the ability to solve well-defined problems.
512
What is creative intelligence?
the ability to react adaptively to new situations and to generate novel ideas.
513
What is practical intelligence?
the ability to solve ill defined problems.
514
Emotional Intelligence
helps you perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions in your interactions with others.
515
What type of intelligence decreases with age?
fluid intelligence
516
Heritability
proportion of variability due to genes.
517
What are the various components of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory?
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal.
518
Who developed the IQ tests?
Alfred Binet
519
Formula for IQ
IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100
520
Cognitive dissonance
is the discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting cognitions.
521
Temporal monotonicity
assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain and adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation.
522
Wernicke's Aphasia
damage of Wernicke's area, jumbled speech a.k.a fluent aphasia
523
Global aphasia
wernicke's aphasia + broca's aphasia
524
Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected in the brain by a bundle of nerve fibers called the ____________________.
arcuate fasciculus
525
Conduction Aphasia
damage to arcuate fasiculus, ability to conduct information between listening and speaking is disrupted.
526
Neural plasticity
brain's ability to adapt and move functions to new parts.
527
Universalism
thought comes before language.
528
Vygotsky's idea of language
language and thought are independent but they converge through development.
529
Weak linguistic determinism
language influences thought.
530
Strong linguistic determinism
language determines thought completely. (whorfian hypothesis)
531
Nativist Theory of Language
children are born with the ability to learn language.
532
Critical period
birth to ~ 9 yrs
period of time in which a child is most able to learn language.
533
When does the language acquisition device operate?
during the critical period.
534
Learning Theory
children only acquire language through reinforcement.
535
Interactional Approach (a.k.a social interactionist approach).
thought by Vygotsky, biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language.
536
Syntax
refers to the way words are placed together to form language.
537
Lexicon
entire set of morphemes in language.
538
Phonemes
are the smallest unit of sound in a language.
539
Morphemes
are the smallest significant unit of a meaning of a word.
540
Lexical access
refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning.
541
Transformational grammer
different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.
542
Linguistic Universals Theory
characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures.
543
Linguistic Relativity Theory
there are significant linguistic differences between cultures.
544
What are the four important structures of the limbic system?
hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus
545
Which sense bypasses the thalamus?
smell.
546
What is the Kluver-Bucy syndrome?
bilateral destruction of amygdala.
547
What is the limbic system?
is a set of structures in the brain that deal with emotions and memory.
548
Function of Hippocampus in relation to emotion
forms new memories.
549
_________ emotions evoke more electrical activity on the left side of the brain.
Positive
550
________ emotions evoke more electrical activity in the right side of the brain.
Negative
551
What are Paul Ekman's universal emotions?
happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise.
552
Why are these six emotions universal?
consistent facial expressions among cultures.
553
James Lange Theory of emotion
interpretation of physiologic response causes the emotion.
Ex: I am crying therefore I am sad.
554
Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion
physiological responses and the experience of emotion both occurred simultaneously.
Ex: I am sad because I am crying and I see my pet sick.
555
Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion
physiological and cognitive responses may simultaneously form the experience of emotion.
Ex: I am sad because I am crying and everyone else is sad.
556
Lazarus theory of emotion
proposed that the experience of emotion depends on how the experience is cognitively appraised.
557
Flynn Effect
an observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next.
558
Emotional Intelligence
ability to understand emotions present in oneself and how those emotions motivate oneself and others.
559
The _________ is the brain structure most associated with disgust.
Insula
560
Stress
responsible to challenging events.
561
Cognitive appraisal
subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
562
Primary appraisal
initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat, this appraisal can be identified as irrelevant, benign, or stressful.
563
Secondary appraisal
evaluates whether an organism can cope with the stress.
564
Stressor
is a biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response.
565
What are some causes of stressors?
environmental factors, daily events, workplace or academic setting, social expectations, and chemical and biological stressors.
566
Distress
occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors.
567
Eustress
is a result of positive conditions.
568
Approach-Approach conflict
refers to the need to choose between two desirable options.
569
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
choices between two negative options.
570
Approach-Avoidance conflict
deal with only one choice, goal, or event but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements.
571
The sequence of physiological responses developed by Hans Selye
The general adaptation syndrome
572
Three distinct stages of the general adaptation syndrome...
1. Alarm
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
573
What does the stage of alarm involve?
initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
574
What does the stage of resistance involve?
continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor.
575
What does the stage of exhaustion involve?
when the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity.
576
Anhedonia
inability to feel pleasure.
577
Allostasis
describes systems that keep maintenance systems in balance.
578
Allostatic load
describes the effects of chronic stress if the allostatic changes are not adequate in maintaining homeostasis.
579
Rather than "flight or fight" a female may respond by _____________ to an non-life threatening stressor.
tend and befriend
580
Internal locus of control
is associated with individuals who feel in control of situational outcomes.
581
External locus of control
associated with individuals who feel environmental factors have more influence on situational outcomes.
