MCAT Flashcards
The _____ of a wave is directly proportional to its _____, but inversely proportional to its _____
The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency, but inversely proportional to its wavelength
Define: Doppler Effect and its Result
An increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves as the source and observer move toward (or away from) each other.
The effect causes the sudden change in pitch noticeable in a passing siren.
Shifts frequency, not intensity, so cannot dampen sounds
________does not change when the wave travels from one medium to another!
Frequency does not change when the wave travels from one medium to another!
Why doesn’t _____ change when going through different mediums?
What happens to frequency?
What happens to wavelength?
What happens to speed of wave?
When waves travel from one medium to another the frequency never changes.
As waves travel into the denser medium, they slow down and wavelength decreases. Part of the wave travels faster for longer causing the wave to turn.
The wave is slower but the wavelength is shorter meaning frequency remains the same.
What is Interference? (Waves)
What are the different types?
What do the different types look like?
The combination of 2 or more waves. Can be constructive or destructive
What is Constructive Interference?
Interference: The combination of 2 or more waves.
When the waves are in-phase (crest meets crest, trough meet trough), this is Constructive Interference.
What is destructive interference?
When the waves are out-of-phase (crest meets trough, trough meets crest), this is destructive interference and the amplitude (maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium) of the resultant wave is equal to the difference between the 2 individual amplitudes
Decreases amplitude, therefore energy, and thus loudness
What is the relationship between amplification, energy, and frequency?
The amplitude, or vertical height, of a wave is defined as half the peak-to-trough height; as the amplitude of a wave with a given frequency increases, so does its energy
Define Wavelength
The distance between two corresponding points in a wave—between the midpoints of two peaks, for example, or two troughs—is the wavelength (λ)
Define frequency, what are its units?
The frequency (ν) of a wave is the number of oscillations that pass a particular point in a given period of time. The usual units are oscillations per second (1/s = s−1), which in the SI system is called the hertz (Hz)
Define: Amplification
A result of constructive interference
What changes in a molecule would you expect in a Nucleophilic Addition?
would expect to see a pi bond in the molecule break in order to form two new sigma bonds.
What is Hydrolysis? What are 3 common types?
Hydrolysis - hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which water is used to break down the bonds of a particular substance.
Opposite of condensation (combination of 2 molecules that results in the release of H2O).
Salts: Hydrolysis occurs when salt from a weak base or acid dissolves in liquid. When this occurs, water spontaneously ionizes into hydroxide anions and hydronium cations. This is the most common type of hydrolysis.
Acid: Water can act as an acid or a base, according to the Bronsted-Lowry acid theory. In this case, the water molecule would give away a proton. Perhaps the oldest commercially-practiced example of this type of hydrolysis is saponification, the formation of soap.
Base: This reaction is very similar to the hydrolysis for base dissociation. Again, on a practical note, a base that often dissociates in water is ammonia.
Define: Saponification
Saponification - describes basic hydrolysis of ester bonds. Typlcally a triglyceride
What would you expect to see in an oxidation reaction?
Oxidation - more oxygen appears in molecule
Oxidation: gain oxygen, lose hydrogen, lose e-
What is a dehydration reaction?
Dehydration - the removal of water from a molecule
What is a lipase? What is its role?
Lipase - an enzyme that breaks down fats (which contain 3 esters)
A lipase is any enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats. Lipases are a subclass of the esterases. Lipases perform essential roles in digestion, transport and processing of dietary lipids in most, if not all, living organisms.
What is the most common biomolecule is an amide present in?
Amides - Functional groups present in proteins
What is a hemiacetal?
What common biomolecule is it found in?
Hemiacetals - functional groups present in sugars
What common biomolecules are ethers found in?
Ethers - not largely important for biological molecules
Define: Gauge Pressure
The pressure relative to atmospheric pressure
Positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure
Negative for pressures below atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure adds to pressure of any fluid not enclosed in a rigid containers. Happens because of Pascal’s Principle
Define: Absolute Pressure
Sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure
Pabs = Pg (gauge) + Patm (atmosphere)
Can never be negative
Because fluids push rather than pull, the lowest absolute pressure can be is zero.
Define: Ambient Pressure
Pressure of the surrounding medium (gas or liquid) of an object
Define: Systolic Pressure
Maximum Blood Pressure
Define: Diastolic Blood Pressure
Minimum Blood Pressure (like when you die
(diastolic) your blood pressure will be very low)
Paramagnetic
electron orbital half-filled
attracted to magnet
Diamagnetic
All electrons are paired in valence shell
Not attracted to magnet
Energy of excitation is _______ to energy of emitted photon
Energy of excitation is directly proportional to energy of emitted photon
Valence Structure refers to _____ in the periodic table
Valence structure refers to the family or column in the periodic table (because family/column have identical valence structures)
______ always lose their valence “s” electrons before any “d” electrons
Transition Metals always lose their valence “s” electrons before any “d” electrons
Triple bonds have ___ pi bonds and ___ sigma bonds
Triple bonds have 2 pi bonds and 1 sigma bond
Double bonds have ___ pi bonds and ___ sigma bonds
Double bonds have 1 pi bond and 1 sigma bond
Single bonds have ___ pi bonds and ___ sigma bonds
Single bonds have 0 pi bonds and 1 sigma bond
The amount of Acetyl-CoA produced via B-oxidation is ___. The number of rounds in B-oxidation is determined via ___
The amount of Acetyl-CoA produced via B-oxidation is C/2. The number of rounds in B-oxidation is determined via (C/2)-1
For each Acetyl-CoA that enters the TCA cycke generates: ___ NADH and ___ FADH2
For each Acetyl-CoA that enters the TCA cycke generates: 3 NADH and 1 FADH2
Disulfide bonds are most easily broken via _______ to their thiol state
Disulfide bonds are most easily broken via reduction to their thiol state
______ is responsible for forming disulfide bonds
oxidation is responsible for forming disulfide bonds
When Kreb’s Cycle is halted, conditions are (aerobic/anaerobic)
Conditions are aerobic still. The ETC is still functional.
Cell would end up consuming more glucose to compensate for loss of ATP production supplied by Kreb’s Cycle.
A molecule is _________ if it does not have any carbons in which all 4 substituents are different (no chiral centers)
A molecule is Optically Inactive if it does not have any carbons in which all 4 substituents are different (no chiral centers)
Define: Osmotic pressure
The solution with _____ [solute] has ______ osmotic pressure
The pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution via osmosis
The solution with greater [solute] has greater osmotic pressure
Define: Hypertonic Solution
When osmotic pressure of solution outside the cell is greater than osmotic pressure inside the cell
Water exits to equalize osmotic pressure
Concentration outside is greater than concentration inside
Define: Hypotonic Solution
When Osmotic Pressure inside the cell is greater than osmotic pressure outside the cell.
Water enters cell and cell gets larger or bursts
Concentration inside is greater than concentration outside
Tonicity is a measure of _______
Osmotic Pressure
The ______ in bacteria, help to oppose ______ so that bacteria can exist in hypotonic solutions.
In absence of _____, water can diffuse across ______ and cell can _______
The cell wall in bacteria helps to oppose osmotic pressure so that bacteria can exist in hypotonic solutions.
In absence of cell wall, water can diffuse across lipid bilayer, and cell can burst
What are 3 facts about a prosthetic group?
- Non-protein organic molecule associated with an enzyme
- Added to proteins after translation
- Needed for some enzymes to catalyze reactions
The light phase makes _____ and the dark phase consumes _____.
What will happen in the absence of the dark phase?
The light phase makes NADPH and the dark phase consumes NADPH
In the absence of the dark phase, NADPH will still be produced, but it will not be consumed, leading to buildup of NADPH. Carbohydrate production will cease (because dark phase is responsible for carb. production)
Racemic mictures are (optically active/inactive)
During _______, the final electron acceptor is O2 (from ____), but during ________, the final accepter is an organic compound.
During oxidative phosphorylation, the final electron acceptor is O2 (from NADH), but during fermentation, the final accepter is an organic compound.
Lactic acid decreased the pH of plasma (making it more _____). The CO2, dissolved in the plasma, also decreases the pH through conversion to _______. Thus, respiratory rate is regulated to ______ when plasma becomes more acidic.
glucose is _______ in glycolysis
oxidized
_____ is regenerated in fermentation, but not in ____.
NAD+ is regenerated in fermentation, but not in glycolysis
Muscle cells can produce ATP through:
Aerobic Respiration:
With glycolysis linked to the Kreb’s Cycle and Oxidative Phosporylation
Anaerobic Respiration:
With use of NADH to reduce pyruvate to lactic acid, regenerate NAD+
Faculative Anaerobes are able to:
use either fermentation or oxidative phosphorylation depending on O2 availability
Define: Isomerase
Define: Hydration reaction of a dbl bond
In the hydration of a dbl bond (alkene) h20 acts as a nucleophile to destroy double bond and produce an alcohol
If you have a 16-carbon fatty acid, How many ATP, NADH, FADH2 will be generated?
In B-oxidation?
In citric acid cycle?
In ETC?
TOTAL?
In B-oxidation: # of cycles = (C/2) - 1 -> 16/2 - 1 = 7 cycles. Which produce:
7 FADH2,
7 NADH,
8 Acetyl-CoA
In CAC -> each round produces:
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 GTP
(so 24 NADH, 8 FADH2, 8 GTP)
In ETC ->
- 5 ATP per 1 FADH2
- 5 ATP per 1 NADH
1 ATP per 1 GTP
Total of 108 total ATP (be careful, there might be 2 that need to be subtracted due to starting of b-ox)
Fatty acid synthesis occurs in the _____
cytosol
Beta-Oxidation occurs in the _________
Mitochondrial Matrix
What happens in the absence of oxygen?
Define: Symbolic Culture
Non-tangible culture that exists in society:
norms
beliefs
ideas
(social networks can be an example of symbolic culture)
Define: Social Capital
Expected benefits that individuals receive from social networks
Define: Human Capital
Individual’s skills, knowledge, experiences that are condsidered valuable to society.
Define: Cultural Capital
Non-financial resources that can help an individual’s social mobility
appearance
language
clothing
Define: symbolic capital
Resources given to an individual due to power or prestige
How does social support correlate with mortality?
positively correlated with health and negatively correlated to mortality. Therefore, mortality rates decrease as social support increases
Define: Social Constructionism
Define: Symbolic Interactionism
Explains why ppl interact and respond to others based on individual’s interpretations of the interactions
Define: Conflict Theory
Inequality occurs when an uneven distribution of walth and power (resources) is present in a society.
Define: Deviance
When a social norm is violated (oppositve of conformity)
Define: Discrimination
Behavior (usually negative) directed towards a specific social group, often emerges from prejudice
Define: Privlege
The advantages provided to dominant or majority group members, often at the expense of minority group members.
Define: Stereotype
Single and usually distorted belief aimed at individuals of a social group
Define: Prejudice
The unjustified attitude (usually negative) toward a specific social group. Can lead to discrimination but doesn’t have to.
Define: Weber’s Three Component Theory of Stratification
Includes: Class, Power (ability to implement one’s decision despite opposition), and Status (one’s reputation, often associated with class)
Class and status help facilitate power
Define Structural Functionalism?
What theorist is it associated with?
Structural Functionalism: the relationship between individual parts of society, which function together to promote social order.
Purpose of individual structures is to contibute to stability of the whole society
Durkheim
Define: Conflict Theory
What theorist is it associated with?
Describes the power relationships and inequality in society.
Argues that power differences and social inequalities contribute to producing social order. (would consider mental illness to be a result of these inequalities)
Karl Marx
Define: Symbolic Interactionism
What theorist is it associated with?
Sysmbolic meaning between social interactions
The idea that social interaction is a process by which meaning is created and maintained
Mead and Cooley
Define: Social Facilitation
An individual performs better in activities in which they are being watched as opposed to when they are alone.
Define: Conformity
When an individual follows an established norm. Opposite of deviance
Define: Agents of Socialization
Socially contructed roles transmitted in some form (such as tv transmitting social construction of gender roles or parents dressing children in gender specific clothing)
Define: Peer Pressure
Enouragement from peers to conform to social norms; individuals are influenced by actors within their in-group or that which they relate to or see as role models
(Does it have to be conforming to social norms? Could it be conforming to deviant behavior as well?)
Define: Gender Differentiation
Gender as a social construct
Not due to biological differences but socially constructed differences (girls wear pink and boys wear blue)
Define: Labeling
When others place an individual into a certain group until they feel pressured into fulfulling that specific role
Define: Ethnocentricism
Define: Social Exclusion
Define: Global Inequality
Define: Cultural Relativism
Idea of believeing that no superior group exists and encouraging the mindset of being unbiased to all kinds of groups.
Define: Intergenerational mobility
Social mobility (up or down), when compare to family members of another generation
Define: Intragenerational mobility
Social mobility (up or down), when compared with family members of the same generation.
What is decarboxylation?
Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). Usually, decarboxylation refers to a reaction of carboxylic acids, removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain.
Magnetic fields exert forces on ______/_____ particles. Since photons have no charge, they are (affected/unaffected) by magnetic fields.
Magnetic fields exert forces on moving/charged particles. Since photons have no charge, they are unaffected by magnetic fields.
(do particles have to be charged? or can a neutral molecule that is moving be affected??)
Define: Alpha Particles
Alpha particles: Carry a positive charge. It is made up of two protons, and two neutrons, bound together.
Define: Beta particles
Beta Particles: Carry a negative charge. Are high-energy electrons
Define: Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays: Neutral, waves of electromagenetic energy
Each subsequent molecule in the electron transport chain has a ______ (higher/lower) affinity for electrons than the molecule before it; therefore, the final electron acceptor will have the _____ (highest/lowest) affinity for electrons.
***Remember that each subsequent molecule in the electron transport chain has a higher affinity for electrons than the molecule before it; therefore, the final electron acceptor will have the highest affinity for electrons. Oxygen has a very high electronegativity, making it a good electron acceptor.
What is the role of NADH in the ETC? Is NADH a strong or weak electron donor?
NADH - Donates its electrons to the first electron carrier in the ETC -> resulting in the oxidized NAD+. Remember, that NAD+ means that it has lost an electron in the form of a hydrogen, meaning it has low electron affinity. NADH is a STRONG ELECTRON DONOR!!!
Because ___ is the terminal species in the electron transport chain (ETC), it must have the ______ electron affinity.
_____ donates its electrons to the first electron carrier in the ETC.
_____ enters the ETC by donating its electrons directly to ubiquinone (CoQ)
Because O2 is the terminal species in the electron transport chain (ETC), it must have the highest electron affinity.
NADH donates its electrons to the first electron carrier in the ETC, the product of its oxidation, NAD+, would have the lowest electron affinity.
FADH2 enters the ETC by donating its electrons directly to ubiquinone (CoQ) so the oxidized FAD will have a lower electron affinity than CoQ
What is the relationship between pKa and pH?
The pKa of any system is equal to the pH where exactly half of the compound in solution is in the protonated from and half is in the deprotonated form
(does this mean that it is neutral? - I don’t think it necessarily does)
What is the equation that relates:
Energy
Wavelength
E = hc/λ
Define: Glycosylation
Glycosylation: the attachment of sugar moieties to proteins, is a post-translational modification (PTM)
Why is an imine unstable to hydrolysis?
How are imines hydrolyzed?
Hydrolysis of Imines: nucleophilic addition; nucleophilic water attacks the electrophilic carbon involved in C=N double bond.
