Mcat Flashcards
Where does electron transport chain happens?
Inner membrane of mitochondria
What is reduced in complex 1 of electron transport chain?
NADH, electron goes to coQ. Reducing ubiquinone to ubiquinol.
What is reduced in complex 2 of ETC? I
FADH2, electron goes to CoQ. Reducing ubiquinone to ubiquinol.
What happens in complex 3 of ETC?
CoQ delivers its electrons that comes from complex 1 and 2 and becomes supercharged to push H+ to the intermembrane space of mitochondria.
Electrons goes to cytC. For every pair of electrons received, 2 cyt c are reduced.
What happens in complex 4 of ETC?
CytC electron moves to complex 4. Complex 4 supercharged and H+ goes to intermembrane space. Electrons in complex 4 goes to the final electron acceptor O2 becomes 2H2O
Sleep stages and their waves
Beta- Awake and active individual
Alpha- stage 1 or relaxation drowsy
Theta- stage 2 k complexes and sleep spindles
Delta- stage 3
Beta- REM
Note: stage 1,2 theta early stages, stage 3,4 delta slow deep
What is the equation for specific gravity?
S.G=density of the object/ density of water
What is the density of water?
1000kg/m3
Specific gravity can measure what?
Fraction of the object submerged in water or any other liquid
What is buoyancy force?
Fbuoyancy=density liquid x Volume of the liquid displaced x g
It is an upward force that exerted on object fully or partially immersed in fluid.
Fluid can be liquid or gas. Due to this force an object appears to lose weight, appears to be lighter.
What is archimede’s principle?
When a body is immersed fully or partially in fluid, it experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
Mnemonic: up wold
Upward force= weight of the liquid displaced.
what is the formula for pressure in fluid?
P=density of fluid x d(change in height)x g
Relation between distance, acceleration and time?
D=1/2a x t^2
Plane mirror produces image where?
Produce an image behind its plane at a distance equal to the object distance in front of the plane.
Equation for power?
P=W/t
Normal thin layer chromatography separates compounds based on?
Polarity
In thin layer chromatography which phase is polar and which phase is non polar?
Stationary phase is polar (silica gel, alumina) and mobile phase is non polar( hexanes, ethyl acetate)
In thin layer chromatography which compounds have larger Rf?
Non polar
What is the general order of carboxylic acid derivative reactivity is?
Most reactive to least: acid halide, acid anhydride, ester, amide, carboxylic acid
Esters can be formed by reaction between what?
Carboxylic acid and alcohol, under acidic condition, the reaction is known as Fischer esterification. It is formed by condensation of carboxylic acid and alcohol.
Anhydrides is most commonly made from which compounds?
Carboxylic acid and an acid chloride
How does esters named?
Alkyl group from the alcohol as a substituent prefix, and carboxylic acid as the root name with ic acid suffix replaced by ate
What is heteroatom?
Atom other than carbon and hydrogen.
How L and D designated?
L and D are relative configurations of the highest number chiral carbon.
Three germ layers and their responding certain tissue types in the body?
Ectoderm - Nervous system, epidermis, hair.
Mesoderm- connecting tissues including bones, muscles, tendons. Blood cells and several organs heart, kidney, and gonads.
Endoderms: lining of digestive tube and associated organs.
Antidiuretic hormone ADH acts to decrease urine output by?
Increasing the water permeability of the walls of the distal tubule and collecting duct
Difference between urethra and ureter
Urethra: The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine from the urinary bladder to the outside.
ureters: carry the urine away from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which is a temporary reservoir for the urine.
How is the reduction potential calculated in 2 half reactions?
Ecell=Ered - Eox
Red cat, An Ox
Higher in the table better the reduction potential so better OA.
Stoichiometry doesn’t matter.
How strecker syntheses make alpha amino acids?
It is used to generate alpha amino acids from aldehyde using ammonium chloride NH4Cl and KCN. The intermediate is planar (no stereocenters), nucleophilic addition can occur from either from above or below the plane. So it produces mixture of L and D amino acids.
Gas liquid chromatography is used to separate molecules based on what?
Based on boiling point. The mobile phase is inert gas with low boiling point eg N2, He or Ar. Higher boiling point molecules more readily reenter the liquid phase( stationary), moves slower through the column.
A mixture of organic molecules with acidic or basic functional groups can be separate by?
An acid base extraction. The acid and base components in the mixture are initially in the organic layer but can enter the aqueous phase by converting into ionic salt by deprotonation or protonation via extraction with aqueous base or acid.
Extraction is a technique used to separate molecules based on?
Solubility. Molecules will dissolve in solvents of similar polarity.
Important wave numbers to know for IR spectrum
OH board peak at ~3300
NH Sharp peak at ~3300
CCOOH - broad peak at ~3000
And 1750
C=O sharp peak at ~1750
How ester’s body is formed from carboxylic acid and alcohol
Carbon chain that includes carbonyl carbon stems from carboxylic acid and carbon chain bonded to oxygen atom stems from the alcohol.
What are the factors that can effect H NMR of chemical shift?
Degree of carbon substitution and proximity to electronegative atoms. Protons in alkyl group are among the most shielded and normally appear 0.9-1.4 ppm. (Downfield, de shielded), (upfield, shielded). CH3<C-CH2<C-CH etc the other extreme is H in carboxylic acid
What mass spectrometry measures
Mass of the molecules and molecular fragments. It creates molecular ion, a radical cation with mass to charge ratio (m/z). Ionized material enters a magnetic field, which curves the path of the particles by their m/z. Only cations reaches the detector.
What IR spectroscopy measure?
It’s provides the ability to molecular structure through analysis of vibrational and rotational molecular motion. The wave number of an IR absorption is proportional to the frequency of the motion. Highest wave number stretching vibration occurs for the bond with lightest combined mass of atoms.
Rate of reaction indicates?
How quickly the reactant molecules are consumes and the product molecules produced. (E.g change in the species concentrations per unit time)
Gibbs free energy indicates?
Spontaneity (thermodynamic favorability) of the process.
Entropy S indicates?
Molecular disorder of the system. Solids are low entropy and gasses have higher disorder
What is specific heat capacity of a substance?
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1•C
Molar enthalpy equation?
Delta H= q reaction/moles
What does negative delta H mean?
A negative change in enthalpy delta H indicates an exothermic rxn that releases heat to the surroundings and raised temperature.
What enthalpy measures?
Change in total energy of the a system. Enthalpy in is bond breakage which is positive. enthalpy out is bond formation which is negative. Total enthalpy is Sum of enthalpies of all bonds broken and formed. When pressure is not changed, delta H equals to amount of heat is absorbed or released by a reaction.
Hess’s law on enthalpy?
It states that if a reaction can be performed in more than one step, the heat of the overall rxn(overall enthalpy) is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes from each step.
What is the numbers for STP?
Temperature=273K or 0C
Pressure=1atm
Gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L for every 1 mole of gas molecules.
What dipole moment measure?
p=qd
The magnitude of a dipole moment across a polar covalent bond is equal to the magnitude of partial charge multiplied by the bond length separating the charges the difference in EN between two covalently bonded atoms is indicative of the magnitude the partial charge.
Equation of Lorenz force?
F=qvB
Magnetic field is perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. As a result charge’s trajectory is forced into a curved, - charges and +charges bend opposite direction.
What is conjugate acid/base?
Is the species that the acid or base becomes after losing or gaining one protons. A base is converted into its conjugate acid when the base accepts a proton. Acid is converted into its conjugate bases when the acid donates a proton.
What is functionalism theory stands for?
Society=an organism, each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium(homeostasis). It is macro perspective. Theorists are Emile Durkheim, Talcott parsons.
What is conflict theory stands for?
Society=struggle for limited resources. I qualify based on social class.
Macro perspective. Theorists are Karl Mark, Max Weber
What is social constructionism stands for?
Social acorns define what is real. Knowledge about world based on interactions. Perspective is macro or micro
What is symbolic interactionism stands for?
Meaning and value attached to symbols. Individual interactions based on these symbols. Micro perspective. Theorists are Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead.
What rational choice/ social exchange theory stands for?
Individual behaviors and interacts attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost. Micro perspective
What is feminist theory stands for
Examines gender inequality in society. Perspective is macro or micro.
What is Avogadro’s law states?
It states that the volume occupied by a gas is directly proportional it’s number of moles if the temperature and pressure are constant. The gas with more moles will occupies the larger volume.
V/n=constant
What are the different dipoles?
- Ion dipole interactions occur between the partial charge of a permanent dipole and the full charge of an ion.
- Dipole induced dipole i reactions occur when a permanent dipole induces a weak temporary dipole in a non polar bond or atom.
- Dipole dipole interactions occur between the partial charges of two permanent dipoles.
All blotting technique involves what general steps?
- Separation of bio molecules by electrophoresis to be separated by size.
- The separated biomolecules are transferred from gel to membrane
- The molecules are exposed to probes that specifically bind to the target molecule.
- The probe is visualized.
What is epitope?
Antibody binding site within a protein.
How does TCA cycle and ETC are interconnected?
TCA cycle oxidizes acetyl CoA to produce NADH and FADH2 which then feed into the ETC. Succinate dehydrogenase aka complex II of ETC, oxidizes succinate to fumarate to make FADH2.
Fermentation allows ATP production by?
By glycolysis to continue in the absence of
Oxygen. Product of lactate allows regeneration of NAD+ which is necessary for glycolysis. Fermentation does that by reacting pyruvate and NADH together to produce lactate.
What is apoptosis
It is programmed, non inflammatory, resulting in cell death. When cells get damaged (eg increased buildup of ROS (reactive oxygen species), apoptosis activated and degradation of cellular components starts. Cell fragments gets eaten by macrophages (phagocytosis)
What is necrosis
Passive accidental cell death resulting from environmental perturbations with uncontrolled release of inflammatory cellular contents.
Chemical shifts to remember for H-NMR spectroscopy
TMS standard=0
Sp3 0-2
SP 2-3
Sp2 3-5
Aromatic carbon 6-9
Aldehyde 9-10
Carboxylic acid 10-13
How does Infrared Spectroscopy work
It uses infrared light source at various frequencies. This allows to determine the frequencies that cause particular covalent bonds to vibrate and stretch.
Steps in action potentials with Na/K pump
- At rest neuron maintains a potential difference know as RMP, ~-70mV.
INK- more negative inside the cell and more K inside. This is maintained by Na/K pump, K leaks channels, and passive diffusion of K. - When stimulus causes Na pump to open, 3 Na+ rush into the cell, causing depolarization. When it is reaches threshold, AP initiated.
- If threshold is reached. Na keep remain open, causes overshoot to almost positive, that is when Na closes
- K channels open
- K rushes out of neuron resulting repolarization
- Because K close slower, the membrane potential briefly becomes more -, hyper polarization
- K closes, RMP restored.
What are the neuroglia?
Neuroglia are glial cells. They provide support functions to neurons and the nervous system.
What are the different types of neuroglia and their functions in central nervous system?
They are glial cells.
1. Oligodendrocytes- form myelin sheaths around the axons to reduce leakage, decrease capacitance and increase action potential propagation speed along the axon in central nervous system.
2. Ependymal cells- line compartments and produce cerebrospinal fluids.
3. Microglia- serve as immune cells which phagocytize pathogens, damaged cells, and waste materials.
4. Astrocytes- contact blood vessels, regulating blood flow to coordinate synaptic activity and chemical changes. Also important for maintaining extracellulair fluid, ion, pH and neurotransmitter homeostasis.
Also provide nutrients for neuron function, development, maintainance, communication with other glial cells
What are the important neuroglia( glial cells) in peripheral nervous system?
Schwann cells- form myelin sheath around the axons to increase speed of conduction.
Satellite cells- provide structural support and supply nutrients to neurons
What is behavioral isolation?
Two species exhibit different mating behaviors.
What is hybrid breakdown?
F1 offspring are viable and fertile but F2 hybrid offspring are unviable or sterile.
What are the broad categories of barriers to hybridization between species?
Prezygotic barriers
Post zygotic barriers
What are the prezygotic barriers for hybridization?
- Temporal isolation - May reproduce different times
- Ecological isolation
- Behavioral isolation
- Mechanical isolation
- Gametic isolation
What are the postzygotic barriers in hydridzation?
Hybrid sterility
Hybrid inviability
Hybrid breakdown
What is negative priming.
Impaired processing (eg slower response or reduced accuracy) that occurs when a stimulus is initially ignored and then later attended. Eg first bei g asked to pick a red pen and ignore other colors pens, then asked to pick a blue pen, response time is slower.
What is hindsight bias?
Tendency to perceive an event as being likely after it has occurred, even if it was unlikely. Eg after getting a minor car accident, an individual states that she just know she should have stayed home
What are cytokines
Signaling molecules that regulate immune cell functions. Helper T cells produce cytokines that function to activate other immune cells.
What T cells do?
They bind forging antigens displayed by major histocompatibility complex proteins found on the surfaces of other cells (eg other immune cells, infected cells)
Types:
Helper T cells which produce cytokines
Cytotoxic T cells which induce apoptosis in cells of infected by pathogens
What are the different ovarian cycle phases?
Follicular, ovulation and luteal phase. In the follicular phase menses and proliferative phase happens, in luteal phase secretory phase happens.
What hormones higher in follicular phase?
Day 1-13, follicle stimulating hormone FSH peaks during first week, stimulates the development of several ovarian follicles. Subsequently LH begins to surge, one follicle become dominant. Estrogen also increases.
What happens in the ovulation day?
Day 14, soon after LH surge, ovarian follicle matures and an oocyte is released
What happens during luteal phase?
Day 15-28 FSH and LH cause follicle to be converted into the corpus luteum which produces progesterone. Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the endometrium to make it receptive to embryo implantation and surpasses FSH and LH. If fertilization doesn’t occur corpus lutheum degenerate and progesterone and estrogen level decline sharply. If pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum is still present and FSH and LH remain suppressed. Estrogen and progesterone levels will be high.
What is specific rotation?
Is the degree to which chiral molecules rotate plane polarized light, which unique to each chiral molecules. Clockwise rotations are + and counter-clockwise ones -. Enantiomers are nonsuperimposable mirror images and their specific rotations are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
What are the stages of spermatogenesis?
Testes contain specialized coiled structure called seminiferous tubules which are locations of spermatogenesis. Steps:
1. Spermatogonia undergo mitotic division forming 2 daughter cells. One of them remains a spermatogonium while other becomes a primary spermatocyte and begins meiosis. Meiosis 1 results in 2 secondary spermatocytes.
2. Completion of meiosis 2 yields 4 spermatids.
3. Spermatids undergo several changes eg cytoplasm loss, acrosome formations tail development ultimately into spermatozoa.
4. Spermatozoa migrate to the epididymis where they continue maturation and acquire motility.
What Sertoli cells do?
Seminiferous tubules also contain specialized nurse cell called Sertoli cells which are responsible for providing nutrients to sperm as well as regulating cell development.
What does leydig cells do?
Secrets testosterone
What is lactonization?
Is the intramolecular reaction between an alcohol and carboxylic acid that creates a cyclic ester( lactone).
What is lactamization?
Is an intramolecular condensation reaction between an amine and a carboxylic acid that comes a cyclic amide. (Lactam)
Which causes can cause disruption in primary structures of protein?
Primary structures are the sequence of amino acids from N terminus to C terminus and is formed by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids. It can only disrupted bh events that alter sequence. Those include cleavage of peptide bonds by proteases and changes in amino acid sequence by mutations in DNA that encodes the protein of interest
Where is the ammonia in urea cycle comes from?
The ammonia that enters the cycle is derived from the amino group of amino acid backbones (deamination) and from amide side chains of glutamine and asparagine (deamidation)
How does nitrogen of amino acid backbone is removed?
By transamination and deamination. (Removal of amine to produce a ketone), producing alpha keto acids in process.
Which amino acid has secondary amine in their backbone?
Proline, it has pyrrolidine side chain, only amino acid in which backbone amino group is secondary amine.
What are the ways to make alpha amino acid?
- Gabriel synthesis
N-phthalimidomalonic ester goes under base (taking the H) and then alkyl halide introduced. Alkyl group is the side chain of the amino acid that is being created. Then it is hydrolyzed and heated to take the 1 one of the carboxylic group (CO2). The rest is amino acid. - Skrecker synthesis elegant way
NH3, KCN, aldehyde or ketone needed.
How many isoprenes in one terpene?
- That is 10 carbons in total.
Steroids are made out of which backbone structures?
Steroids made out of terpenes that form a backbone structure containing four fused hydrocarbon rings. 3 6membered rings and 1 5 membered rings.
Why enantiomers are not readily separated?
Because they have the same chemical and physical properties.
How enantiomers can be separated?
- By adding resolving agent. This make it diastereomers which have different properties and can be separated
- Separation technique that uses chiral media. Eg: chiral column chromatography
How does chiral chromatography work?
It is used for separating enantiomers. Uses chiral stationary phase, which interacts with one enantiomers either R or S more strongly, causing that enantiomer to move slower through the column while other enantiomer with weaker interaction moves through the column more quickly
How E/Z isomers are named?
E- high priority groups on opposite side
Z- high priority groups same side
In Sn1 reactions, nucleophile are in which order?
0th order with regard with the nucleophile and the rate of reaction is independent of the nucleophile identity.
What is exocrine gland?
Glands in which the product is secreted through a duct onto the surface of the body or onto the epithelial lining of a cavity inside the body. Eg tears and bile
What is the germ layer precursor for epithelial tissue?
All of them endoderm ectoderm and mesoderm
What does Gabriel synthesis do?
Aka malonic ester synthesis, is a method used to make primary amines, including alpha amino acids without overalkylation of the amine. The amine is generated from
Potassium phthalimide, a protected form of ammonia that prevents multiple alkylations due to the steric hindrance of the phthalimide group. Synthesis beging with Sn2 rxn, K phthalimide is nucleophile that attacks an alkyl halide.
How to know amino acid is L or D?
By convention, L amino acids are drawn with hydrogen behind the plane of the back bone(dashed line) whereas D amino acids are drawn with hydrogen in front of the plane (solid line)
Amino acid cysteine is different from other amino acid because?
Side chain of cysteine has higher priority than the CO2H group so cysteine has an R configuration but all other natural amino acids are S.
Carbonyls are protected with which protecting group?
Hemiacetel acetal
Hemiketal ketal
Alcohol functional groups can be protected by which protecting group?
Mesylate, tosylate, tert-butyl ether, tert butyl dimethyl silyl TBDMS.
Amines functional groups can be protected by which protecting group?
Tosylate, tert-butyl oxycarbonyl BOC
In neutral environment (~pH7) amino acids are?
Zwitterions, N terminus +1 (NH3+) and C terminus is -1 (COO-). Carboxylic acid is deprotonated and amino group is protonated.
Pka COOH 2
Pka NH3 9
What is torque and its formula?
Rotational force that makes object spin about a pivot point. By convention, torques that cause an object to spin counterclockwise are positive and clockwise are negative. When object is in static equilibrium the net torque is 0.
Torque=rFsin@
What is the difference between depolarization or hyporpolarization on action potential?
Depolarization of a neuron cell membrane promotes axiom potential initiation ( eg more positive membrane potential). Hyper polarization inhibits AP (eg more negative membrane potential) effux of K out or influx of Cl in
What is Dalton’s law of partial pressure states?
Mixture of gases, the total pressure Ptotal is equal to the sum of partial pressure of Pi of each constituent gas at constant volume and temperature. The partial pressure of each gas in the mixture depends only on the relative number of moles of each species and not the identity of the gas.
What is somatic symptom disorder?
Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms eg fatigue, pain
What is conversion disorder?
Neurological symptoms eg paralysis, blindness, that are not explainable by a medical condition
What is illness anxiety disorder?
Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease eg HIV, cancer
What is factitious disorder?
Symptoms or illnesses are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain (eg disability benefits)
What is confounding variables?
Are uncontrolled variables that have an effect on the indecent and/ or dependent variable.
What is the overal steps to muscle contraction?
- Detection of depolarization by a receptor located in sarcolemmal tubes (called t tubules)
- In response Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Ca2+ binds to troponin, which enables binding of myosin head to actin by moving tropomyosin
- Each myosin is bound to ADP and p from previous contraction. Myosin head releases those phosphates. This enables myosin to pull on the actin filament.
- As units move, they release ADP
- ATP halts the gliding movement. Severing the bond between myosin and actin
- ATP decomposed into ADP and phosphate and the energy released will be stored in myosin heads
What are the general skeletal muscle fiber types?
- Slow oxidative type 1
Slow. Endurance activity, fatigue resistant, aerobic respiration, plenty of mitochondria, myoglobin, capillaries. Red - Fast oxidative glycolytic type 2A
Medium. Moderate endurance activity. Anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic respiration. Plentiful to moderately plentiful. Intermediate appearance. - Fast glycolytic type 2X
Fast. Explosive movement, easily fatigued, anaerobic glycolysis. Few mitochondria capillaries and myoglobin. White
What are the 2 important language centers in the brain.
Language functions in the brain tend to be lateralized to the left hemisphere. 2 important center are broca-language production, wernicke - language comprehension.
How PET imaging works?
Positron emission tomography is a functional imaging technique that measure the emission of positrons that result from the metabolism of radioactive tracer. Radiolabeled form of glucose is used.
How uncompetitive inhibitors work?
It binds only to enzyme-substrate complex and decreases both Vmax and Km values by same factor resulting in an unchanged Vmax/Km ratio. Because it binds to ES complex, it depletes ES levels by ESI complexes. this shifts the equilibrium such that additional free enzyme is induced to substrate, causing appearant decrease in Km.
How activators increase enzyme activity?
Enhance enzyme activity by increasing the turnover number kcat (=Vmax/Total enzyme). This helps to achieve higher Vmax by decreasing Michaelis constant (Km) to reach maximum rate at lower substrate concentration or increased catalytic efficiency (=kcat/Km).
What is Doppler effect?
Pitch is how humans perceive sound frequency. Higher the frequency higher the pitch. This is the Doppler effect. It describes a change in frequency of a wave that is the result of a relative motion between a wave source and its observer.
What is frequency
Simple harmonic motion quantifies how many cycles occur in 1 second.
What is transverse wave?
Waves with displacement perpendicular to the axis of motion. Eg water wave in water, electromagnetic waves
What is longitudinal waves?
Waves with displacement parallel to the direction of motion. Eg sound waves
What kind of image concave mirror form
- Inverted, Real image when the reflected object is located outside the focal length
- Upright virtual images are formed when object is placed inside the focal length.
What kind of image formed in convex mirror?
Always form upright virtual image.
What is focal length?
Reflected light rays converge to form an image.
What is osmosis.
Is the diffusion of solvent across semi permeable membrane from a solution of lower solute concentration into a solution of higher solute concentration until the solution concentration equalize.
What is osmotic pressure?
During osmosis, solvent diffusion imparts an osmotic pressure that is calculated by п=iMRT
What is the i (van ‘t Hoff factor) of fructose in solution?
It is 1 because it doesn’t dissociate
What is the differences between oncotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure is the force that pushes the fluid out of blood capillaries whereas oncotic pressure is the force that pushes the fluid into the blood capillaries.
What is hydrostatic pressure!
Force exerted by the fluid inside the blood capillaries against the capillary wall. It aids the movement of fluid from the blood capillaries to the interstitial fluid
What is anomeric carbon?
is the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form of the carbohydrate molecule and is a stereocenter. An important feature is the direction of the OH group attached to the anomeric carbon, indicating that it is either alpha or beta.
How sugars are classified based on their configuration?
L or D based on the configuration of the highest numbered chiral carbon (anomeric carbon is assigned the lowest number possible). R configuration at the highest numbered stereo center designates a D sugar and S configuration designates an L sugar. Sugar also classified as alpha and beta. Alpha- anomeric carbon is on the opposite side of the ring as the highest chiral center Beta is same side
Where does fatty acid synthesis occur?
In cytosol.
Where does fatty acid catabolism (B oxidation) occur?
It occurs in the mitochondria. Since long chain fatty acids are made in cytosol of the cell, it needs to move to mitochondria by transport and activation.
Malonyl CoA is intermediate in which metabolic pathway.
In fatty acid synthesis and it inhibits long chain fatty acid transport to the mitochondria
What is the characteristic of strong nucleophilic molecule?
Nucleophiles donate electrons to electrophiles in nucleophilic substation. There are several factors that contribute to nucleophilicity, including charge and EN. Stronger the EN, less nucleophilicity it is. Strong EN less likely to donate the electron and it is more stable to hold on to their electrons vs less EN atoms.
Different characteristics of thermodynamic enolate vs kinetic enolate?
Thermodynamic: more substituted, requiring small base, higher activation energy, higher rxn temp, forms more stable products
Kinetic: opposite of thermodynamic
What is inductive effect?
Electron density is donated through sigma bonds. Carbocations are stabilized by electrons donating group because they donate electrons to positively charged carbon, they are destabilized by electron withdrawing groups because they will electrons away from the carbocation, creating two adjacent positive charge, making it unstable.
What is Coulomb’s law states about the electric force on 2 charged objects?
Magnitude of the electric force F between two charged objects is directly proportional to the products of each object’s charge magnitude Q1 Q2 and inversely proportional to the square of the charge’s separation distance r.
F=|Q1||Q2|/r2
Increasing the charge on one object increases the electrostatic force on the other object.
What is self serving bias?
Is a type of attribution bias in which a person takes credit for a success ( I did well on the test because I am smart) or blames a failure on an external factor (test was unfair). This bias serves to protect self esteem, one’s overall opinion of self worth.
What are the methods of problem solving?
- Trail and error
- Algorithms
- Heuristics - strategy or shortcut yielding approx results, fast, potentially error prone
- Insight- solution occurs in an Aha moment, typically after a mental break from the problem. Valuable, occurs infrequently
What is self fulfilling prophecy?
Is a belief about something (which may or
May not be true) that influences behavior such that the belief actually comes true. Beliefs (I am bad at chemistry) impact expectations (I won’t do well on the chemistry test) which then influence behavior (not studying). The result (failing the test) then reinforce the belief.
What is belief perseverance?
Is a type of cognitive bias in which person steadfastly holds a belief even when confronting strong evidence to the contrary.
What is incentive theory
Incentive theory suggests that behavior is primarily motivated by extrinsic( external) rewards rather than internal reward or biological drives. Eg, studying hard to get good grade not because he/she interested in the subject
How sympathetic nervous system increase blood pressure?
In times of stress, SNS mobilizes the body’s resources to deliver blood toward the vital organs and away from extremities. One way is increase blood pressure by releasing neurotransmitter norepinephrine to directly stimulate the constriction of vascular smooth muscle. SNS also can increase BP by activating the renin-angiotensin aldosterone system in the kidneys.
Vasoconstriction increase blood presssure by decreasing the volume inside blood vessels. When this volume is lowered, the force of blood flow is raised, thereby increasing blood pressure.
Difference between vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
Vasoconstriction: small blood vessel diameter, lower blood flow, increased blood pressure
Vasodilation: larger blood vessels diameter, higher blood flow, lower blood pressure.
How do you know how many acetyl CoA is made from fatty acids?
FA can be oxidized to form acetyl-CoA and those with an even number of carbons produce half as many acetyl CoA molecules as they have carbons. FA with odd number of carbons produce propionyl-CoA in addition to the acetyl CoA. Unsaturated FA require isomerization reactions to convert cis bonds to trans bonds whereas saturated FA don’t. PS. Carboxylic acid in the beginning of FA is carbon 1 and includes in the carbon tails
What is thermodynamically stable/unstable means?
Thermodynamically stable bond forms during spontaneous reactions (delta G is -, no energy needed). In contrast, thermodynamically unstable bonds forms during nonspontaneous reactions. Those require energy.
What is kinetically stable means?
Spontaneous reactions don’t necessarily proceed quickly. The rate of reaction is described by activation energy. Bonds that break in slow reactions said to be kinetically stable.
What is by product during peptide bonds?
Peptide bonds are formed through a dehydration reaction in which the carboxyl group of one amino acid loses a hydroxyl group and the amino group of another loses a hydrogen atom. H2O is released as a byproduct
What is structure of glyceraldehyde?
It is an aldose that can be derived from the oxidation of glycerol. It contains an aldehyde and two hydroxyl groups.
How frequency shifts when there is wave source and observer Are in relative motion?
Frequency shift occurs when there is relative motion between the source of a wave and an observer. When the source approaches the observer, the frequency is higher, when the source recedes from the observer, the frequency is lower
What is frustration-aggression theory?
Individuals exhibit violent as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated (eg frustration)
What is transesterification reaction?
Is the reaction between an ester and an alcohol that results in an exchange of alkoxy and alcohol R groups. The reaction can be either acid or base catalyzed. It involves nucleophilic attack by the alcohol on the carbonyl carbon of ester to form new alkoxy group. The original alkoxy group leaves and becomes protonated to form a new alcohol.
What is saponification reaction.
Is the remodel of an alkoxy group from ester by a base. It forms a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
How gas chromatography works!
Separate based on boiling point. Low BP elude first. For compounds with same carbon atoms, alkanes have the lowest BP, followed by aldehyde ketones, alcohols and carboxylic acid
What is G cells do in the stomach?
Secretory product is gastrin which signal parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid.
What is parietal cells do in the stomach?
It produces hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factors. Hydrochloric acid is primary component of gastric juice, activates proteolytic enzymes, kills microbes and denature (unfolds) proteins. Intrinsic factors aids in the absorption of vitamin B12 in the illeum.
What is chief cells do in the stomach?
It produces pepsinogen and gastric lipase. Pepsinogen cleaves polypeptides into smaller peptides when activated by the low pH of gastric juice. Gastric lipase carries out hydrolysis of lipids in the stomach
What is mucous cells do in the stomach?
Produces mucus and bicarbonate. Those protects the stomach wall from autodigestion by gastric juice which contains acid and proteases
Where Most of water is reabsorbed into the body in nephron?
In descending loop of henle. In the loop of henle, active transport of NaCl from the ascending limb maintains the high salt concentration in the kidneys medulla, facilitating the reabsorption of water from the descending limb.
