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OPTOMETRY > MBP > Flashcards

MBP Flashcards

1
Q

What does respiratory airway include?

A

Nasal passage, pharynx, larynx,trachea,bronchi,bronchioles

bronchioles have alveoli at end in grapelike arrangement(exchange of co2 and o2)

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2
Q

ATP

A

Carbon dioxide generated due to supply of energy

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3
Q

Mitochondria job

A

supplies cell with energy for metabolism and muscle contraction

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4
Q

mitochondria structure

A

inner and outer membrane, outer membrane forms cristae, have own dna

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5
Q

alveoli

A

next to alveoli rich blood supply, close to sacs this means less diffusion distance

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6
Q

Pharynx structure

A

split into 2 tube, oesophagus and trachea, trachea lined with ciliated epithelium and cilia moves in wave towards pharynx.
epithileum secrete thick mucus to trap dust and move down towards oesophagus

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7
Q

macrophage job

A

macrophage in lung trap particulate matter by phagocytosis

they migrate up trachea and deposit material into oesphagus

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8
Q

chest cavity

A

diaphragm allow contraction and relaxation of lungs which allows us to breathe in and out

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9
Q

pleural cavity

A

liquid between chest wall and lungs

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10
Q

inhaling

A

diaphragm contracts. chest wall moves out
volume in chest cavity increases
reduction in fluid pressure of pleural cavity
pressure in lungs lower than atmospheric pressure therefore air moves into lungs down conc gradient

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11
Q

exhaling

A

diaphragm relax, chest wall move inward
increase in fluid pressure of pleural cavity
increase in pressure insie lungs above atmospheric pressure so air moves out lungs

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12
Q

residual volume

A

air left in our lungs after we breave out forcefully

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13
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

additional amount of air that can be expired from lungs after normal expiration

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14
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air that moves in or out of lungs with each respiratory cycle (500ml)

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15
Q

inspirtory reserve volume

A

amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after normal tidal volume (2500-3500ml)

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16
Q

how much oxygen do we inhale and how is it used

A

1000ml

800ml expired into blood
200ml absorbed into alveoli
heart pumps blood and 200ml/min of oxygen transferred to organs and tissue

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17
Q

how is oxygen transported

A

passive diffusion, high to low conc, molecules in closed container exert pressure against walls

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18
Q

what happens when oxygen reaches blood

A

10% dissolved into blood plasma

most o2 binds with haemoglobin

around 5mil rbc per ml of blood

30% of cell weight taken up by haemoglobin

remainder is absorbed by rbc

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19
Q

hyperventilation

A

hella o2 available

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20
Q

hypoventilation

A

small amount of o2 available

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21
Q

rbc structure

A

biconcave structure, reduces pressure inside
in middle 1 micron at edge 2 microns(biconcave)
whole width of rbc 7.5microns

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22
Q

how does PH affect saturation

A

High pH stabilises saturation at low pressure

Low pH stabilises saturation at high pressure as haemoglobin has less affinity for o2 at low ph.

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23
Q

what will less acid in lungs cause

A

encourage binding of oxygen to oxygen

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24
Q

what does more acid in capillaries cause

A

encourage release of oxygen from haemoglobin to tissues

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25
Q

carbon dixoide affinity

A

co2 has less affinity for haemoglobin

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26
Q

how is carbonic acid formed

A

co2 and water

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27
Q

how is co2 carried

A

in form of bicarbonate ion in blood

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28
Q

co2 removal

A

to be removed co2 needs be in lungs.

co2 which is released 8% us dissolved in plasma,25% of co2 dissolved in haemoglobin,67% dissolved into carbonic acid

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29
Q

how is carbonic acid formed

A

carbonate ions and hydrogen ions combining

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30
Q

number of genes and pairs

A

46,23

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31
Q

karotype?

A

photo of chromosomes used to understnad shape size and number and charactersitcs

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32
Q

function of reproductive system

A

allows transfer of genes from parents to child

protects embryo containing parental genes

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33
Q

where is sperm produced

A

seminiferous tubule

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34
Q

is sperm in middle mature or no

A

mature

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35
Q

what releases sperm

A

vas deferens

36
Q

how is sperm formed and where

A

in semineferous tubule, spermatogonium at periphery(immature) this then becomes speratocyte then spermatid then sperm

37
Q

meiosis in sperm

A

number of chromosomes halved during formation of sperm
each sperm contains one full set of chromosomes
meiosis occurs during spermatocyte formation and egg developiment

38
Q

what do mature sperm cells have

A

longer tails

39
Q

structure of sperm

A

top has head which contains nucleus and releases enzymes to burrow into egg,takes one sperm to fetilise egg

have contractile filaments
tails allow fast swimming and tail has mitochondria around it to provide energy, mito packed together closely

40
Q

final developemtn of sperm

A

stored in vas deferens
stored outside body in sac like structure
secretion is from seminle vesicle and secretion called fructose which allows sperm to stay alive

41
Q

hormones

A

substance released from gland into blood which has specific effect on target cells

42
Q

sex hormones in male

A

testosterone
gonadotrophin
FSH
LH

43
Q

Testosterone

A

controls manufacture of sperm
helps release of sperm
maintains sex drive
determiines sexual characteristics like deep voice and beard

44
Q

how is testosterone controlled

A

controlled by hypothalamus via pituitary gland
hypothalmus release fsh and lh which travel to pituitary
here gates open allowing these to be released into blood
in blood testosterone released

too much testosterone will prevent hypothalmus from releasing fsh and lh

45
Q

Ovaries

A

2 ovaries in body cavity
main function produce eggs
secret female sex hormones oestegoen and progestrone
at birth ovary contains 400000 egg follicles and only 400 mature in female life

46
Q

developemnt of egg

A

primodial are follicles which are potential egg formations
growing follicle
mature follicle with egg
degenerating follicle

47
Q

primary follicle

A

oocyte
granulosa cells
zona pellucida

48
Q

Ovulation

A

mature egg pushes way out ovary
space filled with partially clotted fluid first then follicle egg will enlarge and fill up hole which is called corpus luteum
corpus luteum is important if egg fertilised as produces female hormones important for pregnancy

49
Q

how is ovulation controlled

A

overall controlled by hypothalmus
5-10 days after last period level of oestrogen rises which stimulates growth muscles in uterus walls and epithelium of uterus so wall thicking for fertilised embryo

ovulation occus 15 days after last period which induced by high level of LH

after ovulation progesterone level rises which stimulates epithelium to prodcue secretory tissue and provide stable environemnt for fertilised egg

this lasts between 15th and 28th day

when no embryo implanted corpus luteum degenerates and levels of hormes fall which cause constriction of vblood vessel of uterus and lining removed

bleeding occurs as capillary walls weakened during process

50
Q

fertilisation

A

sperm penetrates egg by releasing enzymes from cap at tip of head
sperm enter cytoplasm of egg and loses tail
fertilisation occurs when nuclei of sperm and egg unite
fetilised egg will move down uterus and divide to form ball of cells

51
Q

placenta

A

critical in development of embryo
made of cells of mother and embryo
enables exchange of materials to take place

52
Q

events of pregnancy

A

sign of pregnancy is hormone change
chronic gonodatrophin allows attachment of embryo to female body
oestrogen and progestorone increases and then decreases as soon as childbirth

53
Q

whaat does nervous system consist of

A

brain
spinal cord
peripheral nerves

54
Q

how many nerve cells in brain

A

150 bill

55
Q

development of nervous system

A

develops from narrow strip of cells out side of embryo
run from head to tail
cells are ectoderm cells and during developments they will sink gradually into embryo
strip of ectoderm cells will sink to form neural groove which have nerual plates along it

56
Q

what is neural tube

A

neural ectoderm sinks further to form neural tube
its has horse shoe shape
edges of groove meet and fuse together and a tube of cells called neural tubes are formed.
tube surrounded by ectoderm and runs from head to tail of embryo

57
Q

what will neural tube develop into

A

mostly spinal cord
upper part of tube will be sensory in function and fibres sent will be out to surface of skin
lower part will be devoted to motor fucntions and fibres sent out to muscles

58
Q

at head end of tube what are 3 regions

A

forebrain
midbrain
hindbrain

59
Q

what is cerebral spinal fluid

A

fluid that formed from neural tube expanding and its used to surround brain and protect it in skull

60
Q

forebrain

A

develops into lateral ventricles which later form cerebral hemispheres

61
Q

midbrain and hindbrain

A

midbrain forms 4 bumps callec colliculi which are important in vision and hearing

hindbrain develop into the pons which are swollen area of fibres and will commuicate with cerebellum
medulla contains various important parts that are need to keep body working

62
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

they have dramatic growth and become dominant feature of brain
bend over to fill availble space

axis of neural tube in spinal cord is vertical but in brain is horizontal

63
Q

what is dura matter

A

thick membrane that protects mature brain

any infection in this area can be very dangerous

64
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

dominant feature of brain and has many diff areas

65
Q

lateral surface

A

frontal- responsible for complex movemnt and intellectual activity

motor-movemnt

somatosensory- sensations from skin

temporal-hearing emtion memory

occipital-vision

parietal-integrates sensory data

66
Q

saggital surface

A

corpus callosum- integrates 2 hemispheres

thalamus- relay station for data entering brain

pituaitary gland- endocrine control

cerebellum-balance

pons-integrate cerebellum and cerebral cortex

medulla- respiration adn cardiac cycle

67
Q

basal ganglia

A

controls movement

68
Q

agnesis of corpus callosum

A

developmental abnormality
results in failure of corpus callosum to develop
lead to fatal changes in brain

69
Q

pyramidal neurons

A

classic structure with branched dendrites and single long axon

70
Q

dorsal root neuron

A

no neurons and single long axon

71
Q

granule neurons

A

dendrites but short axon

72
Q

bipolar neurons

A

single axon and dendrites

73
Q

purkinje neurons

A

elaborate dendritic tree

allow multiple relay of impulses

74
Q

visual pathway

A

eye
optic chiasm
lateral geniculate nucleus
visual cortex

75
Q

brain lesion

A

means injury on brain

in brain large area of parietal cortex will be affected by brain haemorrhage

76
Q

magneto encephalography

A

when subject look at visual stimulus and this generate electrical activity in brain and magnetic field around head will change

coloured areas show regions where magnetic field leaves and enters head

77
Q

position emission tomography

A

radioactive tracer injected into patient
maximum radioactivtiy will correspond to brain activity
patient will be given task and PET will show which parts become stimulated

PET scan shows area damged by a stroke

78
Q

classification of stimuli

A

physical effects include pressure and temp

sensations include softness,tickling and pain

79
Q

vertical section of skin

A

made of epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous fat and seep fascia muscles
hair follicles lie deep in sebaceous glands which found in dermis
sensory endings where nerve fibres end
free nerve endings are not associated with special structure but encapsulated endings are associated with special structure

80
Q

encapsulated endings

A

pacinian corpsucle has nerve ending thats shielded by layer of lamellae, these respond to change in pressure at surface of skin

meissners corpsucle is less shielded than pacinian
occur more closer to skin and more sensitive indicators of touch

81
Q

unipolar neurons

A

skin receptors are specialised endings of unipolar neurons

they have few processes and convey info from skin to spinal cord

82
Q

pathway to spinal cord

A

pacinian corpsucle in skin has long neuron which attached to neuron in dorsal root ganglion then flows into spinal cord

83
Q

receptive fields for skin stimuli

A

touch sensations are quite large and overlapping
completely cover skin
hardly any part of our body which is unstable to experience touch sensations

temp sensations are spread out because temp of our body varies in diff places, some sensitive to hot some to cold

pain sensations have diff fields where sensation in core diff to peripheral.

84
Q

pathway to brain from skin

A

first impulse sent from skin to spinal cord

then two relays occur first at medulla and second at thalamus

then impulse go to cortex to form sensations, somoatosensory cortex where skin sensation percieved

in first relay 2 nucleus are invovled the cuneate nuclues and gracile nucleus

relaays in brain sharpen image and remove noise

with relay the sensation more accurate

85
Q

pain pathways

A

brain contains natural painkiller called endorphins and enkephalins

they discovered due to natural receptors to pain killin drugs like morphine

extreme pain result in release of enkephalins to block pain

as pain impilse travels up to cortex info is conveyed to central grey substance

this initiates impulse which carried to spinal cord and struck neurons to release enkephalins

this release the pain impulse travelling to spinal cord

OPTOMETRY (10 decks)

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