masterdeck Flashcards
study this bitch
Hostility between the USSR and the West - 1941
There were deep ideological differences
The West feared Russian influence
The USSR resented its exclusion from the diplomacy of the 1930s
The West despised that Nazi Soviet Pact and Russian expansion in Eastern Europe
Capitalism
All industry, business and agriculture should be by private people or by a firm competing between rival factories, shops and farms will cause prices to fall and make firms more efficient. (This is the free market. This ideology is all about materialism and choice.)
Communism
Everything belongs to the state and should be run by the government on behalf of society. A classless society achieved by overthrowing capitalism by revolution. (This ideology is all about having only what you need.)
Karl Marx
Invented communism, he believed that life was unfair because rich people made poorer people work for hardly any money - the exploitation of the poor. He thought communism was inevitable. He published he Communist Manifesto in 1848. He said that conflict between communism and capitalism was unavoidable. It provided a framework of political and economic principles that opposed those held in the west. He believed modern industrial society was divided between workers (proletariat) and the wealthy factory owners (capitalists). He was convinced capitalism would be overthrown by the workers in a revolution which would seize control of factories and banks. It would be replaced by Communist society.
1917 - Russian Communist Revolution
When the USA entered WWI, it was an ally of the Russians
After the revolution in 1917, they made peace with Germany, angering USA due to a civil war
The civil war lasted four years and eventually the whites lost, and the reds won
The whites were supported by Britain, France, USA and Japan because they wonted to prevent the spread of communism into the rest of Europe
US Presidents
George Bush, Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, Lyndon B Johnson, Jimmy Carter, Harry Truman
USSR Leaders
Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev
Nazi-Soviet Pact
A secret agreement between the Germans and the Russians that said that they would not attack each other
Stalin stunned the West by signing a non-aggression treaty with Germany in August 1939. The two countries agreed not to attack each other and als to divide Poland between them. In theory, Fascism and Communism were polar opposites and implacable enemies. Stalin was concerned about the British coming to an agreement with the Nazis and not helping the USSR in the event of a Nazi invasion. He was also buying time because he knew that the USSR was well short of being able to fight. He had killed many army officials.
The Second Front 1941
The second front is the idea that Britain would re-enter Europe splitting the German forces, ultimately leading to the German defeat. This would take some of the pressure of the Russian attack because the German forces would need to regroup and attack Britain.
The second front increases tensions because the British delayed re-entering Europe until 1943. The Russians wanted to attack in 1941 so that they would have some relief from the German attackers. The Russians believed that the British didn’t want to move on the second front but instead sit back and led Russia and Germany fight until they both collapse.
The Katyn Massacre 1940
Over twenty thousand of Polish POWs killed by order of Joseph Stalin in April and May 1940 after Soviet Union troops had invaded eastern Poland. There was a starvation of Pole deported in a mass ethnic cleansing program imposed on over one million polish citizen carried out by the Soviet occupying authorities who sent them in cattle trucks to Siberia.
The Grand Alliance
Britain, America and USSR (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin)
Atlantic Charter
During WWII, the US and Great Britain issued a joint declaration in August 1941 that set out a vision for the post-war world. In January 1942, a group 26 Allied nations pledged their support for this declaration known the Atlantic Charter. The document is considered one of the first key steps towards the establishment of the United Nations in 1945.
US aims - Grand Alliance
The four freedoms: speech, worship, want and fear.
GB aims - Grand Alliance
Churchill did not trust Stalin, he was fearful of Soviet expansion and concerned that Soviet influence would spread in central Europe/eastern Mediterranean where Britain had strategic/economic interests. He tried to secure US commitment to post war Europe.
USSR aims - Grand Alliance
Stalin was obsessed with safeguarding Soviet security
Tehran Conference
First major meeting between the Big Three (United States, Britain, Russia) at which they planned the 1944 assault on France and agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation after the war
Liberation
The act of setting someone free from imprisonment, slavery or oppression; release
Poland’s significance
Britain had officially gone to war against Germany to uphold Polish independence, therefore its fate was of utmost significance to Britain. Due to its geographical position, Poland was of immense importance for the security of the USSR.
The Home Front Army
The HFA had been with the Soviets recapturing territory but were often arrested later by the NKVD.
Tensions really reached a head when the Soviets reached the outskirts of Warsaw and called on the populace to revolt.
The Germans were now retreating, and the HFA saw an opportunity to seize the city and then later give the London Poles a better chance of control.
They took Warsaw in three days. However, Stalin halted the advance of the Red Army, refused to allow the western allies to supply aide and disarmed Polish untied on their way to help.
Britain and the USA tried to offer aid via Italy, but the Nazis regrouped and crushed the rising.
In October 1944, the Nazis destroyed Warsaw while the Red Army watched on from the River Vistula.
Percentage Agreement
Churchill proposed dividing up South East Europe into distinct spheres of influence. His gave the USSR 90% predominance in Romania and 75% in Bulgaria, whilst Britain would have 90% in Greece. Yugoslavia and Hungary were to be divided equally between the British and Soviet zones of interest.
Yalta Conference - February 1945
Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin meet
Winston Churchill - wants free elections and democratic governments in Eastern Europe
Josef Stalin - wants Soviet influence in Eastern Europe
Franklin Roosevelt - wants Soviet support in war against Japan
Agreements at the Yalta Conference
- Agree that there must be free elections
- Agree to split Germany and Berlin into four zones for the Soviet Union, France, Britain, and the U.S.
The Atomic Bomb
Heat generated by explosion was hotter than the sun
On the 6th August, the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima causing 92,233 death within two weeks
On the 9th August, another bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Over 40,000 people were killed and 5,000 died within the following three months
On the 14th August, the Japanese agreed unconditional surrender
‘The greatest thing in history’ - Truman
The nuclear bomb gave America a lead which was expected to last at least 5 years. The rapid Russian development of nuclear technology, helped by the work of the ‘atom spies’ was a shock
Potsdam Conference - July 1945
Germany had been defeated, Roosevelt had died and Churchill had lost the 1945 election - so there were open disagreements. Truman came away angry about the size of reparations and the fact that a communist government was being set up in Poland. Truman did not tell Stalin that he had the atomic bomb.
Arguments about the boundaries between the zones continued.
Disagreements about the amount of reparations Russia wanted to take. It was agreed that Russia could take whatever it wanted from the Soviet Zone and 10% of the industrial equipment of the western zones, but Britain and the US thought this was too much.
Soviet Liberation of Eastern Europe
Stalin starts to take over countries he liberates (Salami tactics) and increases force the Eastern Europe. It reflects his desires to have a buffer zone. USA and Britain was fearful of what might happen next.
Communist government in Poland
Britain is seen as hypocritical as Poland is still not liberated. It breaks Yalta and Stalin is manipulating it for his gain. There are no free elections which were promised.
The Red Army
Stalin has more power compared to Britain. GB has a no army compared to the USSR’s huge army which is being used to occupy Europe. Great Britain are impotent to help Europe against the USSR.
Roosevelt’s death
Roosevelt had a good relationship with Stalin and was a political figurehead, successfully ruling for three terms. Truman hates communism and therefore Stalin. They have no relationship and it would take time to build one. The change in the leadership meant that there was unrest.
The Atomic Bomb Secret
Stalin is being left out of ‘The Big Three’ which creates huge amounts of mistrust. Truman shows off to the USSR. They have no bomb and therefore are the weaker ally. It negates Stalin’s plan to build a wall of defence because it won’t protect him.
Churchill loses the election
The leadership of two nations has shifted and therefore there is a change in the dynamic. Attlee doesn’t have the same big presence as Churchill.
Impact of the Atomic Bomb Secret
Bomb Secret
Damages relationship - Stalin is weary of the USA
Increase in nuclear funding
Imbalance of power
The failure of Truman to inform him about the bomb increased his suspicions and distrust of US motives
The atomic bomb had little impact on the Stalin’s policies. He was determined that the USSR would become a nuclear power
Stalin was a wartime ally and felt that he had the right to be informed. Truman decided not to tell Stalin of his decision to drop the bomb on Japan even though it was four days after Potsdam
Conflict between the East and West was very unlikely after WWII
Initially, at the end of WWII Stalin was pragmatic. Communists in Eastern Europe formed coalitions with other left wing parties. Stalin though it was more acceptable to the West.
Conflict between the East and West was unlikely after WWII
HISTORIANS
Historians such as Donnelly have highlighted Roosevelt failure to stand firm against Stalin at Yalta as a crucial mistake that allowed Stalin to play ‘on the gullibility of the West.’
Conflict between the East and West was neither likely nor unlikely after WWII
The position of Germany in the post war world. The division of Germany into zones of occupation had been agreed at Yalta and Potsdam but this was only a temporary measure. The west saw the economic recovery of Germany as vital to general European recovery and an important market for US goods. Stalin saw a future threat.
Conflict between the East and West was likely after WWII
The long term political problems between capitalism and communism were temporarily disguised by WWII. Cooperation between the US and the USSR had focused on the practical issue of ensuring the defeat of Nazi Germany.
Conflict between the East and West was very likely after WWII
Stalin’s ruthless treatment in Poland did much to alienate the West. At the Yalta Conference Stalin demanded parts of eastern Poland to be governed to the USSR and it was clear that Stalin was trying to establish a communist government in Poland.
The Iron Curtain Speech
Churchill argues that there has been a clear division made across Europe between the West and the Soviet Union influenced countries. He believes that there is a clear line between the capitalist nations and the communist. He believes that the Soviet Union view is seeping across Europe and there has been such influence from the communist USSR that a line has been drawn between them.
Soviet Response to the Iron Curtain Speech
Stalin argued that they are trying to prevent another invasion. He had been attacked by Germany through countries surrounding them. They wanted to make these countries allies so that they would have protection.
Eastern Takeovers - Greece
Both Britain and the USA supported the royalist parties in order to dispel any communist opposition.
Eastern Takeovers - Italy and France
Italy and France
They were liberated by the Western allies rather than the Soviet Union so the Communist institutes did have as much support as countries which were liberated by the USSR.
Truman Doctrine - 1947
President Truman’s policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey
Marshall Plan - 1947
A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $17 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe on condition they wouldn’t go communist. Helped contain communism in Europe and helped our economy as Europe bought from US businesses to rebuild.
Motives behind the Marshall Plan
Economic motive: There was a danger of financial recession. Without financial assistance, Europe would not be able to act as a market for US goods. So there was an element of American self-interest to prevent another depression in USA.
Political motive: American saw poverty as an ideal breeding ground for Communism. A prosperous Europe was more likely to resist communism.
Division of Germany
The USA and the USSR could not allow the other side to dominate because Germany was strategically placed in the middle of Europe and therefore have a power of capitalism would be a threat to any communists especially the countries in the Soviet sphere of influence as would a communism power be a threat to the USA and the Western allies.
The Berlin Blockade
The Soviet Union believed they could force Western allies to abandon plans for a West German State by applying pressure to West Berlin
West Berlin were totally dependent on rail and road links through the Soviet links for its supplies and materials
March 1948 - Soviet began to restrict the movement of people and goods between West Berlin and Western Germany
Reaction to the Deutschmark by blockading West Berlin - argued that it was a defensive measure to stop the Soviet zone being swamped with the devalued Reichsmark
Rail and road links to the west as well as electricity which came from East Berlin were cut
The Berlin Airlift
The French were convinced that Western Berlin could only last for a couple of weeks
Bevin provided initial leadership - suggested forceful countermeasures - he was determined to maintain Western position in Berlin and continue setting up a West German State whilst avoiding war
Rejected suggestion by General Clay - that an armed convoy should force its way through West Berlin, easily would have provoked a clash with Soviets
He convinced US that an airlift would supply West Berlin with what they needed - flying aircraft along three ‘corridors’ allocated to the Western Allies by the Soviets in 1945
He was enthusiastic to US requests to transfer 60 B-29 bombers to East Anglia - assumed to carry atomic bombs, it was a bluff - this was possibly the reason Soviet forces didn’t interfere but they also wanted to avoid war
Consequences of the Berlin Blockade and the Berlin Airlift
The blockage lasted 318 days (11 months)
In the winter of 1948-49 Berliners lived on dried potatoes, powered eggs and cans of meat. They had four hours of electricity
The airlift was codenamed ‘operation Vittles’, the first flight was on 26 June 1948
The Soviet authorities offered to provide West Berlin with essential supplies - this offer was rejected. 275,000 flights carried in 1½ million tons of supplies. A plane landed every three minutes.
On 16 April 1949, 1400 flights brought in 13,000 tons of supplies in one day - Berlin only needed 6000 tons a day to survive
Some pilots dropped chocolate and sweets
The airlift continued until 30 September 1949, in order to build up a reserve of supplies
The USA stationed B-29 bombers (which could carry an atomic bomb) in Britain
The American airmen were regarded as heroes
Liberation of Romania
King Michael came back from exile and had to negotiate a truce with the Soviets who had occupied the country. The British and Americans had tactically accepted that Romania was in the Soviet sphere of influence and therefore didn’t provide any help to the Romanian government. A coalition government of Communists, Socialists, Liberals and the Left Wing National Peasants’ Party was formed. The Communists and allies made it impossible for the government to work in 1944-45.
Liberation of Bulgaria
The Soviet occupied Bulgaria in 1944, supported the workers and peasant parties. The Communists controlled thousands of armed partisans and had set up the Patriotic Front. They seized power and set up a government in Sofia before the Red Army arrived. The local communists tried to start a Communist revolution. The country’s former government were killed.
Liberation of Yugoslavia
Tito was a Communist partisan leader in German occupied Europe. He used the USSR as a mode for the state. Soviet troops worked with Yugoslav forces and attacked Belgrade. Tito used his army and formed Communist dominated liberation committees.
Liberation of Greece
Tito and Stalin argued over attempts by the Communist controlled People’s Liberation Army, to set up a National Liberation Government. Greece was in the British sphere of influence. British forces ordered the partisan forces to disband and a revolt broke out. Stalin allowed Greece to stay under British control.
Liberation of Hungary
In 1944, the Red Army advanced and invaded Hungary. The country only had a very weak Communist party and in upcoming elections they would only win 17% of votes. Stalin didn’t know whether to integrate Hungary into the Soviet bloc or not.
Liberation of Czechoslovakia
The Czechs felt betrayed by Britain and France over the Munich Agreement and therefore looked to the USSR to restore their pre-1938 borders. The democratic parties represented by the Czech government in exile in London were no longer in power, instead the Czech Communist Party took power. Stalin forced the leader of the Communist Party to accept Benes as President and work with coalition government.
Liberation of Finland
Soviet troops invaded Finland, who was granted an armistice. Politically, they were given freedom. Finland gave the USSR vitally needed reparation such as railroad equipment and manufactured goods. The Communist party were weak, unpopular and the USSR has no option other than the rely on non-Communist parties.
Liberation of Italy
The Italian Fascist dictator was overthrown and imprisoned, after the Allied landing in Sicily. German troops did seize Italy’s capital. Soviet requests to be involve in Italy were rejected by Britain and the USA. The leader of the Communist party was forced to form a coalition with the Socialist Party.
Liberation of France
As soon as Paris was liberated, the leader of the Free French formed established an independent government. They did sign a Franco Soviet Treaty of Alliance committed both states to co-operate in future wars against Germany. The leader of the French Communist party was instructed by Stalin to work towards creating a left wing coalition with the socialists, to form a government.
Eastern Liberation
Revenge
Annexation
Political Influence
Response to the Marshall Plan
Soviet Union set up Cominform in September 1947 and Comecon in 1949
Problems of Reparations
Reparations
USSR thought they were entitled to lots of reparations for the 20 million deaths - they wanted to take everything
The USA wanted to wait and delay the paying of reparations until their countries were back on their feet
London Conference 1947
Soviets accuse the West of violating Potsdam. The other powers moved towards a separate West German state.
Second London Conference 1948
Germans in the Western zones were granted permission to form a federal Western Germany
Currency Reform June 1948
Two separate currencies were created - West and East. This meant there were two distinct countries forming. The Soviets still wanted the Western allies to abandon their West German States
The Arms Race
Cold war competition between the U.S. and Soviet Union to build up their respective armed forces and weapons
Espionage
The Soviets benefited from spies such as Klaus Fuchs who shared US atomic secrets
East Germany
DDR
One-party state
Walter Ulbricht - General Secretary
Warsaw Pact
85,000 troops
Comecon member
Centralised economy
Slow economic growth
West Germany
BRD
Democracy
Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor
NATO
100,000 troops
EEC member
Social market economy
Rapid economic growth
Stalin’s Note 1952
Stalin proposed reuniting Germany as one state creating a neutral, disarmed Germany - both east and west Germany rejected the note
Czech Crisis 1948
Poor harvest 1947
The US government made it clear they would need to sign the Marshall Plan in order to get any assistance
Instead, the USSR promised 600,000 tons of grain which helped prevent starvation and increasing Stalin’s standing
People blamed Stalin for the loss of Marshall Aid
President Benes went along with the communist demands - allowing people to form governments without other parties
Jan Masaryk (Foreign Minister) died under mysterious circumstances - Fenestration
The Communists took back power and Benes was replaced by Klement Gottwald
Treaty of Brussels 1948
Response to Czech Crisis
A treaty between the Western countries of collective security
North Atlantic Treaty
1949 - Established NATO
NATO 1949
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries
Warsaw Pact 1955
An alliance between the Soviet Union and other Eastern European nations. This was in response to the NATO
Migration from East to West Germany
Brain Drain
West German government admitted 675,000 refugees from the East between 1949 and 1952
The people were leaving were mainly skilled, educated and young, and their departure put further pressure on the already strained East German economy
In order to stop the exodus and stabilise the country, Ulbricht took the decision to seal the border of West Germany in 1952. 160 East Germans lost their lives trying to cross the border over the 1400km frontiers
Berlin - important city
West Germany was prosperous and the East wasn’t, so was seen as more attractive by Berliners. The soviets were fearful of movement from East to West. They had to retain skilled workers
Khrushchev was confident he could force the hand of the USA and UK by exaggerating the nuclear capacity of the USSR
If the GDR could not become a viable state then there were significant risks for other communist nations and the credibility of the Soviet Union
Khrushchev’s aims
Strengthening the GDR
Stop or a least delay the decision by NATO to equip the FRG with nuclear weapons
Show his critics within the USSR and China that he was not soft of the imperialists
Divide the Western powers - divide and conquer
Force them to accept the USSR as a political and military equal and to come to the conference table to draw up a German Peace Treaty. This would involve the Western powers’ withdrawal from Berlin and their recognition of the division of Germany and of the GDR’s post-war frontiers with Poland
Khrushchev’s Ultimatum
10th November - called for a peace treaty with the German states
27th November - six month ultimatum demanding the demilitarisation of West Berlin, the withdrawal of Western troops and its change of status into a free city they could then influence Berlin (self-governing city not incorporated into a state)
If the West refused - threatened to conclude the peace agreement just with the GDR and to recognise its sovereignty over East Berlin. This would then enable it to control access to West Berlin and interfere at will with traffic using the land corridors from the FDR. The West would then be compelled to deal with GDR rather than the Russian officials and so in effect recognise the sovereignty of the GDR which would shatter the Hallstein Doctrine.
West’s reaction to the Ultimatum
They rejected the ultimatum but were forced to the conference table to discuss the ‘German Question’
February 1959 - agreed that a foreign ministers’ conference should meet in Geneva - Khrushchev was delighted to see the splits in the Western alliance
Adenauer viewed statements from London and Washington saying a desire for compromise and concession was being considered but he wanted a tougher line against the Soviets - was alarmed at the decision of the British Prime Minister (Harold Macmillan) to visit Moscow
Geneva Conference
Both sides put forward proposals for Germany unity but no agreement was made
Western powers - free elections
USSR - two Germanys should form a confederation which would slowly evolve into a united state
Cancelled Paris Summit
Dramatically increased US forces in Europe
Urged negotiations on the German Question
Essentially interested in defending free access to West Berlin rather than maintaining the status of Berlin as a whole
Indicated that the USA and NATO would fight to preserve the freedom of West Berlin
They would not intervene to stop the GDR from closing the frontier between East and West Berlin
Economic Crisis in the East
April 1960 - remaining independent farmers were forced into collective farmers
Immediate economic impact - disastrous crop yield, shortage of bread, butter and meat
More people began to flee to the West - 1961 around 199,000 people fled
There was widespread unrest in factories
Berlin Wall
A wall separating East and West Berlin built by East Germany in 1961 to keep citizens from escaping to the West
Total length around West Berlin - 96 miles
Border between East and West Berlin - 27 miles
Concrete Wall - 3.6m
Wire mesh fencing - 41 miles
Number of watch towers - 302
Number killed whilst trying to escape - 192
Khrushchev’s response to the migrating population
Significance of the Berlin Wall
Like Stalin, Khrushchev failed to force the Western allies to withdraw troops form West Berlin or to compel them to negotiate peace treaties with the two states
The constructive of the Berlin Wall achieved a limited but important success for Soviet policies. The existence of the GDR was now assured and the FRG would be forced to recognise it. In effect, by tolerating it they were accepting East Germany as a state
East Germans were to look back on the 13 August 1961 as the ‘secret foundation day of the GDR’. They had no option but to remain in the GDR
Later Ulbricht’s New Economic System was to revolutionise the GDR’s economy and drive towards socialism
Positive impacts of the Berlin Wall
East - Brain Drain, loss of highly skilled workers - doesn’t happen anymore
Provides the US and the West with propaganda - they didn’t need the wall, the east did because so many people wanted to move to the West
Negative impacts of the Berlin Wall
There is now limited access to the West - people trying to escape - death
East - building the wall is an admittance of failure - they can’t keep people in - communism isn’t the best, they have lost to capitalism
De-Stalinisation
De-Stalinisation attempts to liberalise the UDDR after the death of Stalin in 1953
Recognised Soviet satellite states rights to pursue their ‘national ways to socialism’
Appeared the promise a return to the policy of ‘different roads to socialism’
US Radio Broadcast; led to hope for political change and uprisings in Poland and Hungary
Hungarian Crisis 1956
Hungry decides to have free elections. Khrushchev sends in tanks- becomes extremely violent. US didn’t intervene because they were preoccupied with Suez Crisis
Poland Crisis 1956
Poland wants independence and workers began to revolt. USSR sent tanks but allowed the leader to stay in charge as well as making more concessions for the Polish
Significance of Poland
later
Precedent set
Potential to set own path to socialism
Challenge to authority
Reflective of the impact of the secret speech - destalinisation
Possible to have reform - Gomulka
Might suggest weakness on the part of Khrushchev and the USSR
Gomulka refuses to go to Moscow - reflects on Khrushchev’s leadership
Polish example - shows other nations that change may be possible (inspired Hungary)
Significance of Hungary
later
Response of USSR - 3500 dead, 200,000 refugees
Scale is greater
Refusal to allow for loss of satellite states (loss of influence)
Knowledge of Western degree of help to Eastern Europe
It shows the Cold War is still going on
Significance of Hungary and Poland
later
Developing socialism in their own way led to protects in Poland over increased work targets
Problem of Poland and followed by crisis in Hungary - most serious challenge to Soviet power since WWII
Suez Crisis
July 26, 1956, Nasser (leader of Egypt) nationalized the Suez Canal, Oct. 29, British, French and Israeli forces attacked Egypt. UN forced British to withdraw; made it clear Britain was no longer a world power.
The crisis showed the Soviets how difficult it was for them to encourage the satellite states to reform without creating democracy. At the conference in 1957, a motion was passed which recognised the USSR as the ‘first and mightiest of all socialist countries’. In all essentials, nations were expected to stick to the Soviet political and economic model.
The West’s reaction to the rebellions
The Suez Crisis, which took place at the same time, was considered far more important and of greater relevance to the west than the suffering of the Hungarians. Hence why Britain, France and America concentrated their resources on this crisis. - prioritisation
Because of the geographic location of Hungary, how could they actually help without resorting to war? - unwilling
Any economy boycotted of the Soviet Union would have been pointless as Russia took what it needed from the countries it occupied
Both sides in the Cold War were nuclear powers and the risks were too great
Test Ban Treaty 1963
U.S., Great Britain, and USSR sign treaty which bans nuclear testing on land, underwater, and in space. Allowed to be tested underground.
Brinkmanship
A 1956 term used by Secretary of State John Dulles to describe a policy of risking war in order to protect national interests - Khrushchev
Nuclear Diplomacy
Negotiations and diplomacy supported by the threat of nuclear weapons
Impact of Suez Crisis
The events of 1956, proved that Khrushchev was willing to take risks to achieve his ends. Following his propaganda threat of nuclear attack, he was convinced that he could use this strategy to force the West to make concessions - this was called NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY. This policy gained more creditability when he launched the first intercontinental ballistic missile in August 1957, followed by sending a satellite into orbit that October
Era of Détente
(Relaxation of tensions)
US strategy-restrain Soviet Union through diplomatic agreements
Beginning of Détente
First stage - Test Ban Treaty of 1963 signed by Britain, the USSR and the USA, banning nuclear tests in the atmosphere, under water and in outer space. France and China rejected it though
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons signed on 1st July 1968 and put into effect on 5th March 1970
This treaty served not only as arms control between the West and the Soviets, it also admonished the free trade of nuclear secrets
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was viewed as both hopeful and advantageous to both the United States and the Soviet Union
Cuban Missle Crisis (1962)
Standoff between John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in October 1962 over Soviet plans to install nuclear weapons in Cuba. Although the crisis was ultimately settled in America’s favour and represented a foreign-policy triumph for Kennedy, it brought the world superpowers perilously close to the brink of nuclear confrontation.
Prague Springs
An era of purported reforms in Czechoslovakia which was quickly suppressed by the Soviet military
Soviet control was weakening
Bucharest Declaration - attempt to stop independent initiatives occurring in the satellite states
Dubcek - created a socialist system based on the consent of the people, got rid of censorship
Brezhnev Doctrine - a policy issued by the USSR to justify attack in Czech
Positive turning point in the Cold War
Increased Trade - interacting with each other in a positive way
Reduced arms production
Reduced tensions
Negotiations directly between the two sides - starting point, actions needed to be taken
Softening east-west European borders (crossing/access to each other)
Reduce alienation (reduce fear) (restrictions/separation)
Dialogue
Change of policy/direction
Ostpolitik
Willy Brandt’s policy of “opening toward the east” that increased relations between West and East Germany in 1972
He wanted to reunite East and West Germany
Moscow Treaty
The USSR and the FRG declared that they had no territorial gains against any other states. The FRG recognised the inviolability of both Poland’s frontier and the inner German frontier. The GDR agreed to abandon the Hallstein Doctrine (that any recognition of the GDR by other countries was hostile).
Warsaw and Prague Treaties
The FRG and Poland recognised that they had no territorial gain on each other and that the Polish frontier was inviolable. Trade and financial assistance from the FRG were to be increased. Ethnic Germans in Poland were allowed to emigrate the West Germany.
Four-power negotiations
That the FRG link to the west could be weakened by the involvement of Ostpolitik.
Basic Treaty
An agreement that gave both the East and West the opportunity to ‘develop normal good-neighbourly relations with each other on the basis of equal rights’.
Ostpolitik - Turning Point
Moscow Treaty - removes restrictions that hindered a better relationship forming, HD policy removed
Inviolability - won’t change - prevents instability - acceptance of Eastern Europe Border
Negotiations
Ostpolitik - Not a Turning Point
GDR reliance on USSR (independence unification - unlikely)
Fear of exodus (mass movement of people) from East to West
‘magnetic social and economic forces’ - loss of revenue for the East
Unification undermined by Brandt - Biezhev wants GDR
1972 - both sides of Germany join NATO
SALT 1 and SALT 2
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
SALT 1 - Agreement signed by the United States and the Soviets to stop building nuclear ballistic missiles for five years
SALT 2- Singed by Carter and Brezhnev; it reduced and limited number of missile launchers and bombers
These treaties helped to reduce tension between the United States and the U.S.S.R
Successes of the SALT treaties
Agreements were reached
Fewer ABM sites means both sides at risk - parity
defined number of KBMs/SLBMs
Relationship improvements (trade/atmosphere)
Pledged not to use military force
Limitations of the SALT treaties
Reduces ability to defend
Very limited time frame (interim treaty)
New technology is not included in agreement - so it can be used
Still unsettled
Thin on substances
Lever of trade used against the USSR
Very short/complex
Not ratified by congress
Anti-Soviet groups
USSR commitment is questionable
The Helsinki Accords
Political and human rights agreement signed in Helsinki, Finland in 1975 by the Soviet Union and western European countries.
This dealt with the question of security in Europe and laid down a set of principles to guide participating states in their relations with each other.
Peaceful settlements of disputes, non-interference in internal affairs of other states and the ‘inviolability’ of frontiers
It was concerned with co-operation in the field of economics, science, technology and the environment.
It called for co-operation in humanitarian and other fields - this meant expanding tourism, trade and cultural contacts between the two blocs as well as promoting the reunion of families split by the Iron Curtain.
End of Détente
1979-80
Carter
US president
Carter defeated Ford in the 1976 election by over 2 million votes. As governor of Georgia, Carter announced that ‘the time for racial discrimination is over’ and during his period in office, he increased the number of African Americans employed by the state from less than 3 to 40 per cent. Carter was the first president from the Deep South since 1844. His record of civil rights resulted in him being supported by four out five African Americans who voted. He also did well with whites in the South and Americans on low incomes.
Iran 1979
Afghanistan
Kabul Revolution (April 1978)
Taraki (communist) becomes the new leader of Afghanistan and an ally of the USSR
Civil War breaks out between the new communist government and Islamic fights
Taraki is forced to accept Amin as the prime minister
Amin supporters assassinate Taraki and Amin claimed presidency of the country
Soviet troops invade Afghanistan, kill Amin and declare Karmal president (1979)
Hostilities in the late 1970s
SALT II not being ratified
Break down of START and INF talks
Reagan’s military spending
Afghanistan War
End of détente
US-Sino (China) affairs
Reagan
Neo-conservatism
Economic restrictions
Olympics (1980/84)
Carter Doctrine
South Korean Airliner shot down by the USSR
Star Wars - Strategic Defence Initiatives (SDI) - idea to blast enemy nuclear weapons using laser technology on satellites - caused massive rift in the Cold War détente as the Russians accused America of ‘tipping the balance’ (March 1983 - Reagan announced SDI - it was impossible but it fitted with Reagan’s arms race strategy with the Soviets)
Nuclear Arms Race
14 events
6th August 1945: Hiroshima
16th July 1945: Americans were the first to develop a bomb - test firing at Alamogordo in New Mexico
1945-49: USA nuclear monopoly
29th August 1949: USSR exploded atomic bomb at Semipalatinsk
1st November 1952: USA developed hydrogen bomb and tested it in the Pacific
1st August 1953: USSR developed lithium bomb
1st March 1954: USA tested lithium bomb
1955: USA possessed the first bomber with intercontinental range, the B25 Stratofortress
1956: USSR developed the TU20 Bear
1957: USSR launched their first rocket in Kazakhstan - first intercontinental ballistic missile
5th October 1957: USSR launched Sputnik - first space shuttle
November 1957: USSR launched Sputnik II carrying dog
July 1960: USA developed first submarine launched ballistic missile
1961: USSR put the first man in space
1962: USA had 4,000 missile warheads, USSR had 220 missile warheads
Space Race
USSR - First artificial satellite (4 October 1957)
USSR - First animal in orbit, the dog Laika (3 November 1957)
USSR - First firing of a rocket in Earth orbit (2 January 1959)
USSR - First impact into another world, that is the Moon (13 September 1959)
USSR - First plants and animals to return alive from Earth orbit (19 August 1960)
USSR - First human spaceflight with Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space (12 April 1961)
USSR - First planetary flyby (Venus) on 19 May 1961
USSR - First space walk performed by Alexei Leonov (18 March 1965)
USSR - First soft landing on another body (the Moon) and first photos from another body (3 February 1966)
USSR - First impact into another planet (Venus) on 1 March 1966
USSR - First artificial satellite around another body (the Moon) on 3 April 1966
USA - First human on the Moon and first space launch from a celestial body (20 July 1969)
USSR - First lunar rover (23 November 1970)
USSR - First space station (19 April 1971)
USSR - First soft Mars landing and first signals from Mars surface (2 December 1971)
