Martin: Demyelinating/Neurodegenerative Diseases/Toxic and Acquired Metabolic Diseases Flashcards
1
Q
Demyelinating diseases of the CNS are acquired conditions characterized by preferential damage to ________ w/ relative preservation of ______.
A
Demyelinating diseases of the CNS are acquired conditions characterized by preferential damage to myelin w/ relative preservation of axons.
2
Q
Which disease is characterized by distinct episodes of neuro deficits separated in time due to white matter lesion that are separated in space
A
Multiple Sclerosis
3
Q
Which MHC halotype increases risk for developing MS?
A
HLA-DR2
4
Q
Which T cells are the major players in causing damage to the myelin in persons w/ MS?
A
CD4+ TH1 and TH17
5
Q
Which demyelinating disease is associated with lesions that are firmer than the surrounding white matter and contain circumscribed, depressed, glassy, grey-tan, irregularly shaped plaques?
A
MS
6
Q
What is seen morphologically in an active plaque of a patient with MS?
A
- Abundant macrophagescontaininglipid-rich, PAS-positive debris
- Perivascular (small veins) inflammatory infiltrate (mononuclear) at outer edge of plaqe
- Relative preservation of axons within plaque and depletion of oligodendrocytes
7
Q
A 40 yo woman who presents with chief complaint of unilateral disturbance should raise red flags for which disease until proven otherwise?
A
MS
8
Q
What is a frequent initial manifestation of MS?
A
Unilateral visual disturbances due to involvement of the optic nerve (optic neuritis, retrobulbar neuritis)
9
Q
The mnemonic for MS is SINS, what are each of these clinical findings?
A
S = scanning speech
I = intention tremor (incontinence and INO)
N = nystagmus
10
Q
Which Ig is found in increased levels in the CSF of patients with MS?
What is seen on immunoelectrophoresis?
A
- IgG
- Oligoclonal IgG bands
11
Q
Infarction of which artery is associated with contralateral homonymous hemianopia?
A
Posterior Cerebral Artery
12
Q
Infarction of which artery is associated with UMN-type weakness and cortical-type sensory loss; contralateral hemiplegia initially?
A
Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA)
13
Q
Genes for which interleukin receptors have been associated with an increased risk in developing MS?
A
IL-2 and IL-7
14
Q
What are the CSF findings in MS?
A
- Midly elevated protein
- Moderate pleocytosis in 1/3 cases
- IgG increased
15
Q
Which condition is characterize by synchronous bilateral optic neuritis and spinal cord demyelination?
A
Neuromyelitis optica (aka Devic disease)
16
Q
Neuromyelitis optica is due to antibodies against?
Major channel of which cell?
A
Aquaporin-4; major water channel of astrocytes
17
Q
What is commonly found in the CSF of patients with Neuromyelitis Optica?
A
White cells, often including neutrophils
18
Q
Although similar to MS, how does Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) differ?
When does it occur and what are the clinical manifestations?
A
- Occurs in younger patients w/ an abrupt onset and may be rapidly fatal
- Is a DIFFUSE monophasic demyelinating disease occuring after a viral infection or viral immunization (rare)
- Signs and symptoms develop 1-2 weeks after the antecedent infection as headache, lethargy, and coma
- In contrast to MS, all of the lesions look similar – monophasic
*MS has focal findings w/ considerable variance in the size of lesions
19
Q
Acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AKA acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis of Weston Hurst) is almost invariable preceded by a recent episode of?
Who is most at risk?
A
- Upper respiratory infection (URI)
- Young adults and children
20
Q
Central pontine myelinolysis (aka osmotic demyelination disorder) most commonly arises when?
A
- 2-6 days after rapid correction of hyponatremia
- Low to high, the pons will die
21
Q
Which neurodegenerative disorder is characterized by loss of myelin in a roughly symmetric pattern involving the basis pontis and portions of the pontine tegmentum, including myelin loss WITHOUT evidence of inflammation?
A
Central pontine myelinolysis (aka osmotic demyelination disorder)
22
Q
What is the clinical presentation of Central pontine myelinolysis (aka osmotic demyelination disorder)?
A
- Rapidly evolving quadriplegia, which may be fatal
- “Locked-in” syndrome, in which patients are fully conscious yet unresponsive
23
Q
Which chromosome is the gene encoding APP located on and why is this significant?
A
- Chromosome 21
- Lies in the down syndrome region; patients with down syndrome usually develop Alzheimers around age 40
24
Q
Generation of which peptide aggregates are the critical initiating event for the development of AD?
A
Aβ first and then tau
25
Plaques are deposits of aggregated ______ peptides in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Tangles are aggregates of the ________ binding protein tau
Plaques are deposits of aggregated **Aβ peptides** in the **neuropil**
Tangles are aggregates of the **microtubule** binding protein tau
26
Which 3 diseases do Tau deposits appear in without the appearance of Aβ?
1) Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (Picks disease)
2) Progressive supranuclear palsy
3) Corticobasal degeneration
27
A higher number of (plaques/tangles) correlates better with the degree of dementia seen in AD?
Number of **neurofibrillary tangles** correlates better with the degree of dementia
28
What are the focal spherical collections of dilated tortous neuritic processes (dystrophic neurites) around an **amyloid core** seen in AD?
How are they stained?
- Neuritic (senile) plaques
- Amyloid core can be stained w/ **congo red**; dominant component of amyloid core = Aβ
29
Grossly how does the brain of a patient with AD look; where are the effects most pronounced?
Which compensatory change is seen?
- Cortical atropy = widening of sulci, narrowing of gyri
- Most pronounced in: **frontal, temporal**, and **parietal lobes**
- Compensatory ventricular enlargement --\> **Hydrocephalus ex vacuo**
30
Which parts of the brain will contain neuritic (senile) plaques associated w/ AD?
Hippocampus, amygdala, and neocortex
31
Diffuse plaques seen in AD have **no** _____ and are predominantly made up of Aβ\_\_\_\_
Diffuse plaques seen in AD have **no** amyloid core and are predominantly made up of Aβ **42**
32
Neurofibrillary tangles are seen best with which stain?
**Bielschowsky stain (silver stain)**
33
What are Hirano Bodies and what is their major component?
- Elongated glassy eosinophilic bodies
- **Actin** = major component
34
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is an almost invariable accompaniment of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
AD
35
The vasuclar amyloid seen in CAA is predominantly of which type?
Aβ**40 --** use congo red stain to see amyloid
36
What is typically the terminal event in a patient with AD?
Intercurrent disease, often **pneumonia**
37
How are Frontaltemporal Lobar Degenerations (FTLDs) distinguished from AD in term of clinical manifestations?
Changes in personality, behavior, and language come BEFORE changes in memory
38
FTLDs are one of the more common causes of?
**Early** onset dementia
39
What is the characteristic pattern of atrophy seen in Pick disease?
- **Asymmetric**, atrophy of the **frontal** and **temporal lobes** w/ sparing of the posterior 2/3 of superior temporal gyrus (AD is *global*)
- Reduction of gyri to a wafer-thin (**"knife-edge"**) appearance
40
What are Pick Cells vs. Pick Bodies?
How do Pick bodies stain?
- **Pick cells** = swollen cells
- **Pick bodies** = cytoplasmic, **round** to **oval**, filamentous inclusions that are weakly **basophilic** and stain strongly with **silver**
41
Some patients with clinically diagnosed FTLD have inclusions that contain \_\_\_\_\_\_, but DO NOT contain Tau
TDP-43
42
In the absence of a toxic or other known etiology the presumptive diagnosis of PD can be based on the presence of the central triad of parkinsonism, which includes?
How is this diagnosis confirmed?
1) Tremor
2) Rigidity
3) Bradykinesia
- Confirmed by symptomatic response to L-DOPA replacement therapy
43
What is a characteristic morpological finding in the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus of patients with PD?
Pallor (**loss of pigmentation**) of the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus
44
Clinical features of PD can be remembered with mnemonic TRAPS, which includes?
**T =** tremor ("pill rolling" tremor at rest)
**R =** rigidity
**A** = akinesia and bradykinesia
**P** = postural instability (stooped posture)
**S** = shuffling gait (festinating gait)
45
First gene to be identified as a cause of **autosomal dominant PD** encodes \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
α-synuclein
46
What is the diagnostic hallmark of PD and what is the major component of this diagnostic indicator?
**Lewy body;** major component is α-synuclein
Cytoplasmic, eosinophilic, round long **inclusions** with a dense core around a _pale halo_
47
Single or multiple **cytoplasmic, eosinophilic**, round to elongated inclusions that often have a **dense core** surrounded by a **pale halo** describes what feature found in PD?
Lewy Bodies
48
Dementia with Lewy Bodies has which characteristc features?
- Fluctuating course (cognition/alertness)
- **Hallucinations**
- Prominent frontal signs
\*Ha**Lewy**cinations
49
In **dementia with lewy bodies** there is depigmentation of the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus w/ relative preservation of which structures?
Cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala
50
What is Progressive Supranuclear Palsy and when is it commonly seen?
What is the prognosis?
- A **Tauopathy** (does not contain Aβ)
**-** Onset between **5th** and **7th** decades, with **males 2x more affected**
- Often **fatal** within **5-7 years**
51
What are the clinical features of Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP)?
- **Trunchal rigidity**, disequilibrium w/ **frequent falls** and **difficulty w/ voluntary eye movements**
- Also can have: **nuchal dystonia**, pseudobulbar palsy, and a mild progressive dementia
52
What type of hydrocephalus may be seen with AD?
Hydrocephalus ex vacuo
53
What 2 brain inclusions are associated with Parkinsons Disease?
- Tau
- α-synuclein
54
Inclusions containing SOD1, TDP-43, and FUS are associated with that neurodegenerative disease?
ALS
55
Which disease has a clinical pattern noted to be Parkinsonian w/ abnormal eye movements?
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP)
56
The 2 loci identified as causes of the majority of early-onset familial AD encode what?
Presenilin-1 and Presenilin-2
57
Multiple System Atophy (MSA) is characterized by cytoplasmic inclusions of ________ in oligodendrocytes (**glial cells**)
Multiple System Atophy (MSA) is characterized by cytoplasmic inclusions of **α-synuclein** in oligodendrocytes
58
What are the 3 distinct neuroanatomic circuits commonly involved in MSA; what does disruption of each lead to?
1. **Striatonigral:** parkinsonism
2. **Olivopontocerebellar:** ataxia
3. **ANS:** autonomic dysf. w/ **orthostatic hypotension** as prominent component
59
What are the clinical feat of HD?
- Auto **dominant** from _trinucleotide repeat_ and anticipation (from dad)
- Progressive movement disorder (**chorea**) & **dementia**
- **Cognitive** changes due to neuronal loss in cortex
60
What chromosome is the *HTT* gene encoding the protein *huntingtin* found on?
Chromosome **4**p16.3
61
Huntington Disease is the prototype of?
**Polyglutamine trinucleotide repeat** expansion diseases (**_CAG_**)
- Has anticipation during spermatogenesism, so only with dad
62
Repeat expansions of **CAG** associated with Huntington Disease occur when?
Spermatogenesis; paternal transmission associated w/ early onset in next generation
63
In Huntington Disease there is striking atrophy of?
**Caudate nucleus**; globus pallidus may atrophy secondarily
64
What is the age of onset most commonly seen with Huntington Disease?
Fourth and fifth decades (30-50 yo)
65
Which 2 spinocerebellar degeneration disorders are Autosomal Recessive?
1. Friedreich ataxia
2. Ataxia Telangiectasia
66
Friedreich ataxia is associated with what expansion?
**GAA** trinucleotide repeat of gene on **chromosome 9q13** that encodes ***frataxin***
67
When is the onset of Friedreich Ataxia and how does it manifest?
How do the symptoms progress and what do most affected individuals develop?
- **First decade** of life beginning with **gait ataxia**, followed by **hand clumsiness** and **dysarthria**
- DTRs are depressed or absent, but **extensor plantar reflex** is typically present
- Joint position and vibratory senses impaired
- Most will develop **pes cavus** and **kyphoscoliosis**
**- Cardiomyopathy** later in life associated w/ arrhythmia and CHF
68
How long do patients with Friedreich Ataxia live and what are common causes of death?
- Most patients are wheelchair-bound within 5 years and live to about 40-50 yo
- Intercurrent _pulmonary_ infections and _cardiac_ death = **cause of death**
69
Which chromosome is the mutated _ATM_ gene associated with Ataxia-Telangiectasia located on?
Function of this gene?
- Chromosome **11**q22-q23
- Encodes kinase critical for repair of **double-stranded DNA breaks**
- Fails to remove cells with DNA damage
70
When is the onset of Ataxia-Telangiectasia?
What are the common symptoms?
- Ataxic-dyskinetic syndrome beginning in early **childhood** w/ **recurrent sinopulmonary infections** and **unsteadiness in walking**
- Later on, **dysarthria** and **eye movement abnormalities**
- Subsequent development of **telangiectasias** in the **conjunctiva** and **skin** along w/ **immunodeficiency**
71
What is the prognosis of Ataxia-Telangiectasia and how do most of these patients die?
- Relentlessly progressive --\> **death** early in **second decade**
- Many develop **lymphoid neoplasms** (often **T cell leukemias**), gliomas, and **carcinomas**
72
Progressive disease marked by loss of UMN in cerebral cortex and LMNs in spinal cord and brainstem w/ evidence of toxic protein accumulation
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
73
Which missense mutation and on what gene is the most common cause of ALS in the US?
**A4V** mutation of ***SOD1*** on chromosome **21**
74
What is the age of onset for ALS and the earliest symptoms?
Symptoms progress to?
- **Asymmetric weakness** of hands -- dropping objects + difficulty performing fine motor tasks = _5th decade_ or later
- **Cramping +** **spasticity** of the arms and legs
- Fasciculations
- Respiratory infections
75
What are characteristic morphological findings on the spinal cord and brain in ALS?
- Anterior roots are **thin**
- Reduction in **anterior horn neurons**
- Neurons have _PAS +_ cytoplasmic inclusions (**Bunina** bodies)
76
What do the remaining neurons in ALS contain?
**PAS-positive** cytoplasmic inclusions called **Bunina bodies** (remnants of autophagic vacuoles)
77
What is progressive musclar atrophy vs. primary lateral sclerosis in terms of findings in patients w/ ALS?
- **Progressive muscular atrophy:** applied to uncommon cases where LMN involvement predominates
- **Primary lateral sclerosis**: cases where UMN involvement predominates
78
What is progressive bulbar palsy (Bulbar ALS) associated with some patients with ALS?
Prognosis?
- Some pts will have degeneration of the **lower brainstem cranial motor nuclei** occuring early and rapidly progessing
- Problems with **deglutination** and **phonation dominate**; clinical course is inexorable during 1-2 year period; 50% alive at 2 years
79
Which cerebral disease is ALS most often associated with?
FTLD; most often w/ TDP-43 inclusions
80
What occurs in Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke-Like Episodes (MELAS)?
- Episodes of **acute neuro dysf.**, cognitive changes, and evidence of **muscle involvement w/ weaknss and lactic acidosis**
- Stroke like episodes often associated w/ **reversible deficits**
81
The most common mutation in Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke-Like Episodes (MELAS) is in what?
- **tRNAs** most prevalent mut
82
What are the symptoms and classic findings in Myoclonic Epilepsy and Ragged Red Fibers (MERRF)?
- Myoclonus, a seziure disorder, and evidence of **myopathy**
- **Ataxia** due to neuronal loss in cerebellar system also common
- Characterized by **ragged red fibers** on muscle biopsy
83
When is the onset of Leigh syndrome and what are the common signs/symptoms?
- Disease of **infancy -- mitochondrial encephalopathy**
- **Poor psychomotor development**
- Lactic acidemia, **feeding problems, SEIZURES**, and weakness w/ **hypotonia**
84
What is seen histologically in the brain tissue of an infant with Leigh Syndrome?
- Multifocal regions of destruction to brain tissue
- **SPONGIFORM appearance** w/ **vascular proliferation**
85
What are the signs of Wernicke encephalopathy; caused by?
How can it be alleviated?
- Thiamine (B1) deficiency
- Acute; psychotic symptoms or opthalmoplegia
- **May reverse w/ Thiamine**
86
What is Korsakoff syndrome and the main signs/symptoms?
Is damage reversible?
Caused by?
- Disturbances of **short term memory** and **confabulation**
- **Irreversible**
- **Thiamine deficiency --\>** Chronic alcohol; also gastric disorders (carcinoma), chronic gastritis or persistent vomiting
87
Wernicke encephalopathy is characterized by foci of hemorrhage and necrosis where?
With time there is infiltration by?
**- Mammillary bodies** and **walls** of the **3rd** and **4th ventricles**
- Hemosiderin-laden macrophages
88
B12 deficiency causes what?
**- Subacute** combined **degeneration** of the spinal cord --\> defect in **myelin formation**
- Degeneration of both **ascending** and **descending** spinal tracts
89
What are the initial signs/symptoms of B12 deficiency?
- Bilateral **symmetrical numbness, tingling,** and slight ataxia in the **lower extremities**
- May progress to include spastic weakness of the lower extremities
90
Glucose deprivation (hypoglycemia) initially causes selective injury to which areas of the brain?
- Large pyramidal neurons of cerebellar cortex
- Hippocampus; especially Sommer sector (CA1)
- Purkinje cells of the cerebellum
- If severe, **PSEUDOLAMINAR necrosis** of the cortex
91
What occurs to someone suffering from clinical hyperglycemia and what precautions must be taken clinically?
- Pt becomes **dehydrated** and develops confusion, stupor, and eventually coma
- Fluid depletion must be corrected **slowly**; otherwise, **severe cerebral edema** may follow
\***From high to low**, the brain may blow!
92
What type of response in the CNS accompanies hepatic encephalopathy?
Critical mediators?
Which cells appear in the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex?
- **Impaired liver function** accompanied by **glial response** in the CNS
- Mediators = **ELEVATED** **ammonia** levels as well as **proinflammatory cytokines**
- **Alzheimers type II cells**
93
Carbon monoxide poisoning causes selective injury to which areas of the CNS?
- **Layers III and V** of the **cerebral cortex**
- **Sommer sector** of hippocampus
- **Purkinje cells**
- **BILATERAL NECROSIS** of the **globus pallidus** may also occur
94
Methanol toxicity preferentially damages what structure?
Which structures in brain may be damaged?
- **Retina**
- Degeneration of **retinal ganglion cells** may cause blindess
- **Selective bilateral necrosis** of the **putamen**
95
1% of chronic alcoholics will develop a clinical syndrome with what findings?
- Truncal ataxia
- Unsteady gait
- Nystagmus
Bc of atrophy of anterior vermis == **Bergman gliosis**
96
In chronic alcoholics who suffer from cerebellar dysfunction where is atrophy and loss of granule cells mainly seen?
Anterior vermis
97
What is Bergmann gliosis and who is it seen in?
- Advanced cases of chronic alcoholism
- Loss of purkinje cells and **proliferation of adjacent astrocytes = Bergmann gliosis**
98
What are the pathologic findings in the CNS following exposure to high doses of radiation (\>10 Gy)
- Large areas of **coagulative necrosis**, primairly in white matter, and adjacent **edema**
- Vessels will have **thickened walls** w/ **intramural fibrin-like material**
99
Radiation may induce tumors years after therpay, and include what 3 types?
- Sarcomas
- Gliomas
- Meningiomas
100
Tay-Sachs
Cherry red spot
Chromo 15
101
Kear-Sayre Syndrome
102
What are those?
Foci of hemorrhage & necrosis in the **mamillary bodies** -- **_Wernicke's_** encephalopathy
