Marketing inequalities Flashcards
Marketing as a mirror
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Two types of marketing representations
- Underrepresentation: Invisibility or infrequent representation of a group defined by a single, historically marginalised category. Groups such as LGBTQI+ individuals, disabled communities, and older women are often invisible in marketing
- Misrepresentation: The stereotyping or otherwise inferior representation of a group defined by a single marginalised category (Gender, race, intersectionality)
Impact:
- Reinforces social hieraerchies
- Damages self-esteem and mental well-being among marginalised communities
Key insight:
Marketing must challenge norms by ensuring inclusive and accurate representation
Stereotyping in Marketing
Marketing communications are often saturated with stereotypes that shape societal ideas of ‘normal’.
Gender representations:
- Goffman’s (1979) study found men depicted as confident and in charge, women as vulnerable and submissive. (Goffman’s analysis looked at image but also interactions. For example, how long someone speaks for, who interrupts, gestures etc).
- Studies show that the rate of any real change is slow
- Racial stereotypes (Foster Davis, 2020) Markets have historically been rooted in racially driven colonial practices.
Impact:
- Normalises harmful biases and reinforces societal inequalities
- Shapes perception of what is “normal” and acceptable
ASA ruling (2019)
ASA = Advertising Standards Authority (ASA)
‘Marketing communications mut not include gender stereotypes that are likely to cause harm or serious widespread offence’.
‘Review showed evidence that marketing communications was heavily based on outdated views about men’s and women’s roles and capabilities
Race and Power Relations in Marketing
Definition: Marketing reflects and reinforces societal power dynamics, where dominant groups set cultural norms and control resources.
Key findings (Foster Davis, 2020)
- Dominance of whiteness: Marketing norms often prioritise white cultural preferences while marginalising other groups.
- Power dynamics: Dominant groups dictate language, behaviour, and cultural values, perpetuating inequalities
Examples of racial inequalities:
Black imagery:
- Black people are often shown as background figures, athletes or entertainers
- Marketing often ties Black individuals to low-cost, low-nutrition products (e.g., sugary drinks, fast food)
- Historical examples like Aunt Jemima reinforce servitude stereotypes
Key insight: Marketing practices must dismantle racial hierarchies by challenging the white-centric lens and prioritising authentic representation.
Native American Portrayals in Marketing
Definition: Native Americans are often misrepresented or excluded entirely in marketing, perpetuating harmful stereotypes.
Key Findings (Merskin, 2001):
- Common Stereotypes: Native Americans depicted as nature lovers, alcoholics, or savages.
- Impact:
- Strips individuals of moral standing, perpetuating societal inequities.
- Creates subliminal stereotypes that go unnoticed and remain unchallenged.
Key Insight: Ethical marketing must actively address these stereotypes and include Native American voices in representation and decision-making.
Intersectionality in Marketing
Definition: Intersectionality examines how overlapping social identities (e.g., race, gender, class) create unique experiences of discrimination or privilege.
Key Concepts (Crenshaw, 1989):
- Intersectional Invisibility: People at the intersection of multiple marginalized identities often face compounded exclusion.
- Example: Older women, especially those from racial minorities, are often ignored in media and marketing.
- Case Study (Nolke, 2018): LGBTQI+ representation increased, but intersections of sexuality, class, age, and race remained invisible in mainstream advertising.
Impact:
- Reinforces exclusion by ignoring the complexity of identity.
- Marginalized groups experience amplified discrimination.
Key Insight: Inclusive marketing requires acknowledging and addressing intersectional identities to avoid perpetuating systemic inequalities.
Marketing as a source of change
Definition: Marketing has the power to challenge stereotypes and reshape societal norms.
Key Examples:
- Charity Campaigns (Whitehead, 2023):
- Traditional imagery positioned marginalized groups as helpless victims, perpetuating “white savior” narratives.
- Shift to holistic portrayals that emphasize agency and resilience, avoiding trauma-centric depictions.
- Save the Children (Ivy Lahon):
- Advocates for using local photographers and avoiding the “white gaze.”
- Focuses on showing individuals in a 360-degree perspective, defined by more than their trauma.
Key Insight: Ethical marketing can disrupt harmful narratives by amplifying authentic, empowering stories.
Cultural Appropriation in Marketing
Definition: Cultural appropriation occurs when elements of a marginalized culture are used without credit, compensation, or context, often commodifying them for profit.
Key Examples:
- Ralph Lauren: Accused of copying indigenous Mexican designs without acknowledgment, an act labeled as “colonialism in practice.”
- Impacts (Cruz et al., 2024):
- Erodes cultural identity.
- Fetishizes marginalized cultures, reducing them to costumes or commodities.
Key Insight: Responsible marketing must respect cultural origins, engage local communities, and provide compensation to prevent appropriation.
Targeting of Marginalised Groups
Definition: Certain marketing practices disproportionately target marginalized groups with harmful products or stereotypes.
Examples:
- Aggressive Advertising:
- Tobacco, alcohol, and low-nutrition foods marketed to Black and Hispanic youth, contributing to health disparities.
- Stereotypical Depictions:
- Black children often shown eating fast food rather than home-cooked meals, reinforcing socio-economic stereotypes.
Impact:
- Exacerbates systemic inequalities in health and well-being.
Key Insight: Marketing strategies must shift from exploitative practices to equitable and health-conscious targeting.
Critical reflections on marketing practices
Definition: Marketing often reinforces societal inequalities by reflecting dominant norms and marginalizing diverse voices.
Key Findings (Foster Davis, 2020):
- Systemic Racism: Marketing practices historically rooted in colonialism and racism.
- Unrecognized Biases: Many inequalities in marketing are covert and embedded in organizational cultures.
Recommendations:
- Critically examine marketing knowledge and practices.
- Include diverse perspectives to disrupt the status quo.
Key Insight: A critical, inclusive approach to marketing can challenge existing power dynamics and promote social equity.
Example of inappropriate advertising in regards to culture
Fair and Lovely company which sells skin whitening creams in Africa and Asia, with its biggest market in India.
Responsibility issues:
- Company claims they are meeting a need - 90% of indian women want to use whiteners
- Seen as aspirations
- Empowers consumers and provides choice?
Female empowerment in Marketing
Marketing campaigns that address gender inequality by showcasing empowered women
Key concepts:
- Femvertising: Adverts which question female stereotypes often created by the advertising industry itself
- Criticism: Some campaigns superficially engage with empowerment while ignoring systemic issues
Examples:
campaigns celebrating women’s achievements while promoting self-sufficiency (e.g., Always ‘like a girl’). The campaign reframes ‘like a girl’ as a powerful and positive phrase, highlighting that doing things ‘like a girl’ should be a source of pride
