Marine Mammal Husbandry & Enrichment

Question 1

What is the APHIS regulation regarding the amount of coliform bacteria in MM systems?

Answer 1

Weekly sample for most probable number of coliforms (must not exceed 1000 per 100 mL water), may be result of 3 samples over 48h (F8)

Question 2

Operant conditioning can be used for what routine diagnostic techniques in cetaceans?

Answer 2

PE, body weight, venipuncture, gastric fluid collection, urine and fecal samples, chuff samples, endoscopy, ultrasound

Question 3

What are the five freedoms of animal welfare?

What are the five domains of animal welfare?

A few studies have been performed evaluating the pros and cons of cetaceans in managed care. List some of the findings.

What are the US laws that protect marine mammals?

Answer 3

Ethics and Animal Welfare CRC:

1. Animal welfare: sum of positive and negative external and internal influences that combine to create animal’s combined mental and physical state
2. Various methods of assessing animal welfare:
   
   1. 5 freedoms (from hunger and thirst, from physical discomfort, from pain/injury/disease, from fear and distress, to express normal behavior)
   2. Korte: good animal welfare is guaranteed when the regulatory range of allostatic mechanisms matches the environmental demands
   3. Domains: nutrition, environment, physical health, behavior, mental
3. General public most concerned about welfare of cetaceans in captivity
4. Pros and cons all aspects of marine mammal medicine - examples from interactive recreation
   
   1. Studies (pros): Trone, Kuczaj, Solangi (2005) - no negative impact on dolphins with increased play post interactions; Kessler, Harcourt, Heller (2013) - swim with humpback whale program contributed to $15 of Tongan foriegn income
   2. Studies (con): Samuels and Spradlin (1995) - risks to dolphins from humans and to humans from dolphins greater in “non controlled” programs, but mitigated with experienced trainers; Curtin and Wilkes (2007) - conservation message may not be as lasting; possible impacts on wild populations (increase in avoidance behavior in Burrunan dolphins in Australia)

US Laws

• Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (amended 1994, 2004, 2007)
• Endangered Species Act of 1973
• Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (amended 2008)
  
  • basic standards for care of marine mammals on exhibit or in research
  • Typically not as stringent as WAZA, AZA, AMMPA

Question 4

When preparing for a media interaction, describe your preparation.

What are the 7 deadly sins in ethical communication?

Answer 4

There is a media interview prep section, should you ever want it (CRC Ethics Chapter Box 5.4)

• Before: prepare 3 main messages, practice, know the issue, have answers to questions (assume the rudest)
• During: be honest, know the audience, present key points, stay positive, give credit, avoid blame/bias/hubris
• After: remember anything you say can be quoted

“7 deadly sins” in ethical comm.: Blame, fear of failure, perfection, hubris, bias, ridicule, singularity

Preparing to communicate with the media/public

• Have 3 main messages - each with two pertinent stories, two statistics and two sound bites
• End each message with a “call to action”
• Ask questions that grab the audience’s attention
• Brainstorm the 5 worst things that could occur and how to handle them
• Practice
• Translate science in ways that create interest and solutions

Question 5

Describe the design of pool and exhibit space for marine mammals.

What lighting needs do they have?

What about air quality?

Answer 5

1. Pool and Exhibit Design
   
   1. Enough space for natural behaviors and to meet USDA AWA regulations
   2. Provide shade (no shade increases risk of cataracts in pinnipeds)
   3. Prevent public from throwing objects into habitat
2. Lighting
   
   1. Periodicity similar to natural environment
   2. Lighting must allow adequate inspections, observations, and cleaning
3. Air Quality
   
   1. Cetaceans are very sensitive to aerosol and should be protected from debris/dust
   2. HEPA filters if indoors

Question 6

Discuss the ideal marine mammal life support system.

Discuss the pros and cons of open versus closed systems.

What types of filtration should be used in the system?

Discuss coliform testing.

What is the ideal water turnover?

Discuss the use of cholrine adn bromine in marine mammal systems.

How should ozone be used?

Answer 6

1. Life Support
   
   1. Source water
      
      1. Bay pens have a risk for natural contaminants (algal blooms, oil spills)
      2. Flow-through (open) system have same risks of contaminants
      3. Closed systems have recirculating water
      4. Must add salt if using municipal water
         
         1. Use bromine free salt products because bromine causes toxic products when combined with nitrogenous waste
      5. Dechlorinate municipal water (carbon filters, sodium thiosulfate, holding pools
   2. Filtration
      
      1. Biological filtration removes nitrogenous wastes by aerobic nitrification
         
         1. Provides large surface area for beneficial bacteria (Nitrosoma, Nitrobacter)
         2. Ammonia → nitrite → nitrate
         3. Dissolved organic carbon can be absorbed by activated charcoal
         4. Total organic carbon can be trapped by flocculation (alum, cationic polyelectolytes)
            
            1. Protein skimmers (foam fractionators)
      2. Foam fractionators
         
         1. Physically remove organic compounds in water before they break down
         2. Drawn into air bubbles then float to top of chamber
      3. Mechanical filtration (granular media filtration) removes particulate waste and particulate organic carbon
         
         1. Pressurized or gravity moves water through sand
         2. Need to be regularly backwashed to remove waste trapped in sand particles
         3. Foam on pool surface = excessive protein
         4. Sand filter can develop channels where water travels through but is not filtered
   3. Coliform Counts
      
      1. USDA requires that coliforms cannot exceed 1,000 MPN/100 mL (MPN = mean probable units)
      2. If too high, repeat testing at 48 and 96 hours
      3. If average is still too high, corrective action must be taken immediately
   4. Water turnover
      
      1. Optimal rate of turnover = within 2 hours or less
   5. Chlorination
      
      1. Inactivates pathogens
      2. Sodium Hypochlorite → hypochlorous acid (HOCl-) + hypochlorite (OCl-) = free chlorines
      3. HOCl is more effective sterilizer and is favored by lower pH
      4. Nitrogen or ammonia + chlorine → chloramines
      5. “Total chlorine” = chloramines + free chlorine (HOCl + OCl)
      6. Chloramines are less effective sterilizers and more irritating (–> skin/eye lesions)
      7. Measure chlorine once daily (needs to be < 1ppm)
   6. Bromine is not acceptable to use as a disinfectant in marine mammal environments
      
      1. Bromine reacts with organic material to form brominated organic compounds that persist in the water
      2. Brominated organic compounds can be harmful to human and animal health
      3. Make sure your commercial salt mix does not include bromine
   7. Ozone is used to sterilization and water clarity
      
      1. Effectiveness is based on contact time with water
      2. Ozone decomposes and oxidizes material by:
         
         1. Molecular ozone reacts directly with oxidizable compounds → free radicals, hydroperoxide
         2. Indirect action of oxidizable compounds with radicals formed from ozone decomposition
         3. Bromine makes ozonation less efficient
      3. Water in contact with animals should be ozone free
         
         1. Test the ozone reduction potential of the water (should be >700 mV)
   8. UV Light
      
      1. UV light comes into contact with a diverted stream of water
      2. Best used in combo with other disinfection techniques
   9. By-Products of Disinfection
      
      1. Monochloramine, dichloramine are irritating to eyes and mucous membranes
      2. Trihalomethanes can cause liver damage
         
         1. Also can cause lung damage when they are breathed in above the water surface

Question 7

What are the ideal measurements for the following parameters in marine mammal systems?

salinity

pH

Temp

Ammonia & Ammonium

Nitrite and Nitrate

Answer 7

1. Water Quality Parameters
   
   1. Salinity: 27-32 parts per thousand
      
      1. Pinnipeds can be managed in freshwater, but less ideal and must have sodium supplementation
      2. Sirenians in saltwater should have access to fresh water
   2. pH: 7.0-8.5
      
      1. Must be measured daily
      2. As pH increases, need more chlorine to achieve the same results
   3. Temperature
      
      1. Per USDA, “must not adversely affect their health and comfort” but no ranges
      2. Manatees at < 20 C for 2-3 develop cold stress syndrome
   4. Ammonia (unionized, NH₃) and Ammonium (ionized, NH₄⁺)
      
      1. Higher pH in marine systems favors ammonia and chloramines
         
         1. Requires more chlorine
   5. Nitrite and Nitrate
      
      1. Highly toxic to fish but not marine mammals

Question 8

Additional Considerations for MM exhibits

How does perchlorate affect cetaceans?

What considerations should be made on the haul out design for pinniped exhibits?

Answer 8

1. Special Considerations for Different Taxa
   
   1. Cetaceans
      
      1. Perchlorate can be goitrogenic
      2. Volatile organic by-products of disinfection can cause respiratory issues
   2. Pinnipeds
      
      1. Excessive UV light (pools painted light colors, feeding while looking into the sun)
         
         1. Provide ample shade
      2. Hyperthermia can occur if no cool haul-out areas
         
         1. Gunite rocks trap and radiate heat
      3. Provide enough space for male otariids to get away when in breeding season