Management of disease - general Flashcards
How does the gauging system on needles work?
the bigger the gauge the smaller the width of the needle
How can you select the most appropriate needle for what you are doing?
larger animals need a longer length needle
for more viscous solutions need a smaller gauge needle
viscous solutions rarely given IM
How do the basic antibiotics work?
- Disrupt cell wall production beta - lactams, Penicillins, Cephalosporins
- DNA action inhibitors - Potentiated sulphonamides, Fluoroquinolones
- Protein synthesis inhibitors - Streptomycin, Tetracyclines, Macrolides, Florphenicol
Cell membrane function - Monensin
What colour tube Is EDTA and what is it used for?
1Purple – used for whole blood, prevents coagulation – used for PCV, blood smear etc
What colour tube Is serum gel and what is it used for?
Yellow – don’t separate, leave for 15-30 mins before spinning, contains clot activator
What colour tube Is fluoride/ oxalate and what is it used for?
Grey – for glucose analysis
What colour tube Is lithium heparin and what is it used for?
Green – spin and separate immediately, used for blood biochemistry
What colour tube Is citrate?
Blue – for coagulation studies
What colour tube Is serum activator and what is it used for?
Colourless – don’t use for cytology
What colour tube Is plain and what is it used for?
white, rarely used for blood mostly for collecting other fluids
Why do we do urinalysis?
to determine if there is an infection of the urogenital tract, to identify neoplasia of the urogenital tract, to check the concentrating ability of the kidneys, to identify any underlying diseases
What is catheterisation used for?
to remove blockages, to collect urine samples, to do bladder contrast studies
Why does urine have to be analysed rapidly?
because when left the carbon dioxide evaporates raising the pH of the urine, bacteria can grow which weren’t previously there or bacteria that were present can die, any bilirubin present may break down and crystals can form. All these affect diagnostic quality
What are the causes of red urine and how can they be distinguished from one another?
haemaglobinuria – haemoglobin in the urine, when spun down does not separate out. In other tests may see spherocytes, Heinz bodies and ghost cells and anaemia.
Haematuria – red blood cells in the urine, when spun down these will separate out. Often coupled with anaemia
Myoglobinuria –myoglobin in the urine does not separate out when spun but will see raised CK and AST levels on blood tests
What measurements should be discounted on a urine dipstick?
leucocytes, specific gravity and nitrites
What is the normal pH of dog and cat urine?
5-7.5
What causes acidic urine?
Protein rich diet, metabolic or respiratory acidosis
What causes alkaline urine?
Cereal rich diet, respiratory or metabolic alkylosis and UTI s caused by urease positive organisms
What causes proteinuria?
UTI, Haematuria or kidney loss (protein losing nephropathy)
What causes glucosuria?
Glucosuria caused by chronic renal disease or diabetes mellitus where the amount of glucose exceeds the renal tubule’s capacity for reabsorption
What causes bilirubinuria?
Bilirubinuria due to red blood cell break down which is usually excreted in bile, small amounts normal in dogs not normal in cats
What causes ketones in the urine?
Due to incomplete oxidation of fatty acids due to diabetes mellitus, starvation or prolonged fasting. Never normal
What is the normal urine specific gravity for a cat and dog?
1.016-1.060 in dogs and 1.020 – 1.040 in cats
What are casts?
Casts are moulds of the renal tubules created by mucoproteins, a small number are normal
What are struvite crystals?
Struvite crystals are found in alkaline urine, can be normal or be due to a UTI
What are amorphous crystals?
Amorphous crystals are normal and are made of phosphate in alkaline urine and urate in acidic urine
What are calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals?
Calcium oxalate dehydrate crystals are normal and can form in standing urine
What are calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals?
Calcium oxalate monohydrate can be due to ingestion of oxalate rich foods or due to ethylene glycol poisoning - look like picket fences
What are ammonium biurate and uric acid crystals?
Ammonium biurate and uric acid crystals can signify liver disease or portosystemic shunts
What are cysteine crystals?
Cysteine crystals, hexagonal are never normal and signify a metabolic deficiency
How do you calculate the dose needed in ml of a drug
body weight x dose rate / concentration
How are x-rays produced
a cathode produces electrons in a vacuum. the electrons are then accelerated to collide with the anode which produces the x-rays
the size and shape of the beam is determined by collimators
What things should you look for to assess the quality of an x-ray
exposure collimation correct labelling correct positioning no movement blur no artefacts ensure thoracic x-rays are done on inspiration
What are the 5 radio-opacities
air - most radiolucent fat soft tissue and fluid mineral - bone metal - most radio-opaque
What is beam attenuation?
attenuation is how much the beam is prevented from passing through an object
- white objects attenuate the beam almost completely while black objects do not attenuate the beam at all
What should you keep in mind when describing a radiographic lesion
- use correct directional terms
- use anatomical land marks
- use relative radio-opacities
- describe the margins of the subject of interest
- describe changes in shape, size, opacity, number
- acurately describe the size of subjects of interest
- look for absence of structures which should be there
What does effacement mean?
loss of normal contrasting opacity and borders due to something
