Making observations Flashcards
Reliability
ability to get the same results if you repeat your test/ measurement under similar conditions
more variability = less reliable
Reliability of physical measures
e.g. height or weight
repeatedly measure a fixed quantity of the variable
taking the variation in the variable to get a precise measurement result
Reliability of Population estimates
measurement of opinion, attitude
we can just estimate the average value of the variable when we take a sample of the whole population
Margin of error = there can be a variation from sample to sample
Reliability of psychological tests of measurement
tendency to change over time
test-restest reliability
that you administer the test twice with a longer amount of time in between
Use: assessing stable characteristics of individuals e.g. intelligence
variable is unlikely to change over time
-you can extend the amount of time that participants won’t remember the first test
Parallel forms reliability
Goal: not remembering the questions from the previous test
- 2nd administration: using a similar form (items are equivalent to the one in the first form)
- assessing the same knowledge, skills
Problem:
- if the forms are not that equivalent they may change the results/performance
Split- half reliability
two parallel forms of the test in one test
rated and scored separately
Validity
does a test/measurement really measure what it should/ is intended to measure
Forms of validity
- Face validity
- Content validity
- Criterion- related validity
- Construct validity
Face validity
how well a measurement instrument (e.g. test of intelligence) appears to measure (just by its appearance) what it is designed to measure
e.g. mathematical ability - Mathematical problem
Content validity
how good does the test represents the learned knowledge, skills, behavior that it is actually designed to measure
e.g. final exam
Criterion-related validity
use of test score of an individual to make predictions on another scale.
- concurrent validity: comparing with a established test
- predict validity (later outcome)
e.g. using high school grades to predict the success at the college
Construct validity
not observable variable
developed to explain a behavior or idea with a theory (e.g. free will)
Having a concept in mind about
theoretical construct
(e.g. low self-esteem related to higher fast food consumption
Differences in measurement
- measures can be reliable but inaccurate
- measure can be reliable but not invalid
- measure is unreliable; low validity
Differences in validity
- External validity= better to generalize
- internal validity= making better prediction about a behavior
e. g. intelligence, self-esteem, motivation)
Difference in sensitivity
some dependent variable are more sensitive to manipulations than others
Range effects
- floor effect
2. ceiling effect
floor effect
variable reaches the lowest possible value
- task too difficult= everyone scores low
- low range limit
ceiling effect
variable reaches the highest possible value
- too easy task= too many score high
- top-range limit
Behavioral measurements
- Frequency of responding =counting the number of how many times the behavior during a specific period
- latency= how long does it take until someone responds to a stimulus
Reactivity of human
- social history of participant
- personal interpretations = guide behavior
observed behavior = not the normal behavior
Demand characteristics
= cues from the experimenter/context that communicate the purpose of the study
asking what is the experiment about
- pre-existing attitude of the participant
- paying attention to irrelevant cues
- formulating hypothesis about the nature of the experiment
Role attitude cues
signal for the participant to change the attitude; conforming to a new role of participant
Cooperative attitude
strong desire to please the experimenter
-helping science
-desire to perform as well as possible
= good participant effect
Apprehensive attitude
worrying what will happen
being defensive
experimenter may evaluate participants behavior
Negative attitude
trying to ruin the experiment
Experimenter bias
behavior of the experimenter influences the results of the experiment
Expectancy effects
experimenter has previous expectations about the outcome of the experiment and the participants
- treating various groups differently ; consistent with the wished results
- leading participants to a specific behavior
How we can reduce bias ?
in general with blind technique
- single-blind technique
- double-blind technique
- Automate experiment
blind technique
that the hypothesis and the assigned conditions of an experiment is not known
-experimenter/subject are not aware of it
single blind technique
only the experimenter/or the subject don’t know the given treatment or the intended behavior of the experiment
double blind technique
both, experimenter and participant don’t know the given treatment and the hypothesis of the experiment
How can we correct or detect problems
- Pilot study
2. Manipulation check
Pilot study
Small scale study before the actual study
-detecting errors
Help for:
- Clarifying instructions
- finding appropriate levels of observational methods
Manipulation check
see if the manipulations of the participants had the intended effects
- if participant really got the ideas of the study; not find out about the purpose (questionnaires about perception of the study)
What are non experimental research designs
- Correlational design
2. Experimental design
Correlational design
you only make observations about the variables
-no manipulation of the variables
Experimental research
direct manipulation of the independent variables
+ observing the effects of manipulations
How to develop behavioral categories?
- operational definitions= state what defines your observed behavior, in which category would you put it
category e.g. verbal aggression; verbal assertion
- What behavior do you want to observe?
How to quantify behavior
- Frequency method
- duration method
- Intervals method
Frequency method
= checking how often a specific behavior occurs within a time period
duration methode
= how long the occurred behavior lasts
intervals method
= splitting the observation in time intervals/sequences and looking if the observed behavior occurs or not.
- only one instance of behavior can occur
Sampling techniques for behavior observations
- Time sampling
- Individual sampling
- Event sampling
- Recording
Time Sampling
scanning the group over a specific time for; recording observed behaviors
Individual sampling
only observe a single individual over a given time period
Use: get to know the organization of an individuals behavior over time
Event Sampling
only observing one kind of behavior
recording all instances of the behavior
Appropriateness: giving one behavior more importance than the others
Recording
making permanent recordings of the behavior
- used for later analysis
Advantages of recording
- you can it watch several times again (getting missed scene)
- you can show it to other researchers (multiple observers)
- it is easier to hide a camera than yourself = less distraction of the observed subjects
What is a naturalistic observation?
when you observe participants in their natural environment.
- no attempt to control variables
What are characteristics of naturalistic observations?
- act of observing may disturb the natural behavior of the subjects
- Habituating (letting your subjects get used to you)
what are the advantages of naturalistic observations ?
you have a high external validity
What are disadvantages ?
- not investigating the underlying cause of your behavior
- it is time consuming
- uneasy to get the natural habit of the subjects
What is Ethnography ?
studying a behavioral or social system
- describing functioning of cultures —-> studying social interactions and expressions between groups and individuals
- studying social structure of the group
What kind of observations can you do ?
Participant observations
Non-participant observations
What are participant observations ?
being a functional member of the studied group
What is a non-participant observation?
observe as a non-member
What non-experimental research designs are there?
- Naturalistic observations
- Unobtrusive observations
- Ethnography
- Sociometry
- Case History
- Archival Research
- Content Analysis
What is an unobtrusive observation?
observation that does not alter the natural behavior of the subject
What is Sociometry?
identifying and measuring interpersonal relationships within a group (e.g. friendships)
What is case history?
observe and reporting only a single case
case= object of the study
What is Archival Research
studying existing records (e.e. court records, published article)
= literature research
What is a Content Analysis?
analyzing written or spoken recordings of specific events
What kind of Surveys are there ?
- Field survey = directly asking about behavior
- Demographics
- Predictor variable
- Criterion Variable
What are the different Questionnaire items ?
- Open-Endend questions
- restrictived items
- partially open ended questions
- rating scale
- likert scale
How to administer a survey
- Mail Survey
- Internet survey
- Telephone survey
- Group administered survey
- Face to face interviews
What types of survey research is available ?
- Observational techniques
- Field study
- Correlational study
What are observational techniques ?
that you only observe the subject
- only guessing the underlying mechanisms of the observed behavior
- no measurement
