Main Ideas: Liberalism

Question 1

what is liberalism?

Answer 1

Developed much later than the realist theory being in part a response to the theoretical deficiencies in realism and a reaction to a number of developments in the latter half of the 20th century that could not be explained by realism….

Decline in conflict

Rise in democracy

Growth in world trade

Growth in number of IGOs

Question 2

development of liberalism: DECLINE IN CONFLICT

Answer 2

Number of deaths in battle had fallen to less than 10,000 in 2006 compared with 600,000 in 1951

Nature of conflict also changed from predominantly interstate conflict (war between states) to intrastate conflict and Civil War

Question 3

development of liberalism: RISE IN DEMOCRACY

Answer 3

By 2006 over half of all countries had become democracies

A huge development and factor in the decline in conflict as democracies tend to be far less aggressive than authoritarian regimes

According to the democratic peace theory no two democracies have ever been to war with each other

Question 4

development of liberalism: GROWTH IN WORLD TRADE

Answer 4

Worldwide exports are worth $629 million in 1960 by 2010 they were worth $30 trillion

Suggests that states are becoming increasingly interdependent which is thought to reduce the potential for conflict between them

States will not risk conflict if it jeopardises the sale of exports and the supply of imported goods

Question 5

development of liberalism: GROWTH IN NUMBER OF IGOs

Answer 5

The postwar era has witnessed a huge rise in the number of IGOs, including the UN EU NATO IMF ICC and more

Demonstrates a desire on the part of states to cooperate rather than go to war with each other

Question 6

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Answer 6

Liberalism may appear to be a less highly developed theory than realism

this is because liberalism developed in reaction to the realist theory so there is less need for a priori reasoning (theoretical deduction) and much of the liberal theory develops from observable facts about the world

It’s a fact that states want to cooperate and they do so through alliances trade agreements and international organisations

Question 7

human nature:

Answer 7

Liberalism takes the polar opposite view of human nature to realism

According to realist individuals are selfish and put their interests before all others but liberals argue that individuals are altruistic and capable of a selfless concern for others

Liberals have a much more optimistic view of human nature

Question 8

human nature:

Answer 8

Liberals would argue that evidence that humans are altruistic and capable of a selfless concern for others can be seen by the fact that many states provide at least 0.7% of their GDP as international development aid

Question 9

human nature:

Answer 9

the Human potential for altruism and selflessness is demonstrated theoretically and practically

for example Rousseau uses the Stag Hunt scenario to show how humans are naturally altruistic

Question 10

human nature: the stag hunt scenario

Answer 10

Two Hunters track a stag if they work together they can kill the stag and both enjoy a hearty meal

If they are discovered or do not cooperate the stag will flee and both will go hungry

The hunters hide for hours but there is no trace of the stag meanwhile a hare appears on the path and if one hunter kills the hare he will get to eat but this will scare off the stag and the other hunter will starve

there is no certainty that the stag will arrive but the hare is guaranteed and if one hunger waits for the stag there is the possibility of the other hunter killing the hare for himself and ruining the prospects of the stag being caught

Question 11

human nature:

Answer 11

Rousseau claims that the hunters will wait for the stag together because….

• the stag yields more food than the hare
• in any given scenario at least one hunter is guaranteed food but if they cooperate to kill the stag, both will eat
• both hunters are rational and equally informed, so recognise cooperation is the best option
• the benefits to each hunter in waiting for the stag far outweigh the benefits to any individual hunter in catching the hare

therefore, cooperation is the best option

Question 12

human nature:

Answer 12

David Hume presents two further scenarios where selflessness and cooperation is more beneficial to everyone

1) rowing a boat — two people are needed to row the boat, if both cooperate by rowing together they will successfully move the boat but if only one rows, he wastes his effort and no progress is made
2) draining a meadow — two people want to drain a meadow, if they work together the meadow will be drained quicker but if one fails to cooperate, the meadow will not be drained

Question 13

human nature:

Answer 13

Practically the benefits of selflessness can be seen in the animal world

Killer whales carousel feed which involves working together in groups to corral large schools of fish to the surface and stunning them by hitting them with their tales, each whale then takes its share of the kill

Similarly Wolves hunt in packs and lions hunt in prides

Beehives are highly sophisticated units with each individual bee performing a necessary role for the greater good of the whole community

Question 14

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 14

If altruism is possible in human nature and states can also behave altruistically and selflessly because they are ruled by people

States do not have to be the self interested actors described by realism

Question 15

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 15

Liberals reject the realist assumption that states are unitary actors instead of arguing that the interest of states reflect the plurality of interest in a state

This allows for the possibility that states interest change according to which political groups control the executive and legislature or even according to public opinion and pressure group activity

Challenges the realist view that states will always be primarily concerned with power and this will not change

Also challenges the realist view that states are you need to reactors by suggesting states are influenced by the public and pressure groups — a state cannot just act in its own interests it must consider public opinion

Question 16

possibility of harmony and balance:

CASE STUDY: Vietnam War

Answer 16

Example of a state being influenced by public pressure and public opinion leading to a change in public policy

As more and more young men were drafted to fight in Vietnam and the number of American casualties increased from the mid 60s onwards more and more Americans began protesting against the war

Protest reached its height in 1970 when 4 students were shot dead at an anti-war protest at Kent State University this led to nationwide student protests

Opinion polls showed that only 1/3 of Americans supported the war

Shortly after this the US government began to drastically reduced troop numbers in Vietnam and in 1975 the last US personnel were evacuated from the capital of Vietnam

Question 17

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 17

Liberals also argue that the constitutional and political organisation of a state affects its behaviour towards other states

In this sense liberals have something in common with classical realists

Question 18

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 18

Constitutional organisations refer to the mechanisms in place to protect human rights or allow for judicial review of the executive

states with such mechanisms tend to be less aggressive but they also tend to intervene in the affairs of other states when they feel that human rights are under threat

Question 19

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 19

Political organisation refers to whether a state is a democracy or a dictatorship

Democracies value the rule of law and involve government changes taking place through elections in which everyone must accept the result and does

These democracies are better placed to resolve disputes with other states because they are accustomed to settling internal political disputes peacefully

But dictatorships use terror and oppression against their political opponents so tend to resort to using the same tactics against other states

Question 20

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 20

Liberals have different beliefs to realist about the nature of states and their motivations rooting from their optimistic view of human nature

so they also believe that the international system is characterised by cooperation rather than conflict — conflict is not inevitable

Conflict can be avoided if states choose to work together to promote their mutual interests

Question 21

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 21

J D Bowen Argues that the world is like a high school

states like students can choose how to act in their environment they can choose to be the high school bully or they can cooperate and join a sports team or other club

In a very similar way states can choose to be aggressive or cooperate with other states

crucially they have a choice which means that war and conflict is not inevitable harmony and balance in the international system is very possible

Question 22

possibility of harmony and balance:

Answer 22

There is evidence to suggest that the international system is characterised by cooperation

Many international organisations and institutions emerged in the post war era with the express purpose of promoting peace and preventing another world war — states seem to have consciously chosen to cooperate

Such evidence challenges the realist theory which due to its beliefs in human nature and the motivations of states argues that the only response states can make is to engage in military conflict states are predestined to act aggressively and war is inevitable

Whereas liberalism is not pessimistic about the state of international relations

Question 23

complex interdependence:

Answer 23

a term coined by Robert Keohane and Jospeh Nye In the 1970s to describe how states and their fortunes are inextricable tied together economically politically militarily and culturally

They noted that various complex connections and interdependencies were taking place between states and these relationships were increasing

meanwhile the use of military force was decreasing

Question 24

complex interdependence:

Answer 24

This links to liberal ideas about how trade promotes interdependence between states

Classical liberal Economists such as David Ricardo and the Manchester liberals Richard Cobden and John Bright argued that freetrade promotes economic interdependence as states rely on each other for goods and trade promotes the exchange values and ideas

A cobweb of interdependence develops which makes conflict between states unthinkable in contrast to the billiard Ball model associated with realism which views states as autonomous and self-contained units rather than being interconnected and dependent on each other like liberals believe

Question 25

complex interdependence:

Answer 25

Complex interdependence is characterised by three main characteristics

1) Development of multiple channels of action between societies in interstate trans-governmental and transnational relations meaning that states are no longer autonomous international actors
2) Growing prominence of economic and other low politics issues in world politics over high politics issues such as defence and foreign policy
3) States increasingly prioritising trade over war leading to a decline in the use of military force and coercive power

Question 26

complex interdependence:

Answer 26

In 1795, Immanuel Kant Published an essay in titled perpetual peace: a philosophical sketch in which he proposed a theory for achieving international peace that advocated complex interdependence between states, especially the kind identified by Keohane and Nye in the 1970s

Question 27

complex interdependence:

Answer 27

Kant Suggested that three definitive articles would be required for international peace

1) The civil Constitution of every state should be Republican
2) The law of Nations should be founded on a Federation of free states
3) The law of world citizenship should be limited to conditions of universal hospitality

Question 28

complex interdependence:

Answer 28

This became known as the Kantian Triangle and has since been adapted to meet the conditions of the modern world and the state of liberal thinking

It now refers to…

1) democracy — Kant Originally referred to Republican government by which he meant a separation between the legislature and the executive he was not referring to democracy in the modern sense where there are universal suffrage et cetera but as this is now the most prevalent form of representative democracy democracy is used in the triangle instead of Republican government
2) International organisations — A Federation free states is now interpreted as international organisations and institutions
3) Economic interdependence — Universal hospitality now refers to free trade

These three conditions will increase complex interdependence between states and lead to peace in the international system

Question 29

complex interdependence:

CASE STUDY: The European Union

Answer 29

the EU is a Federation of free states meaning that members agree to give up some of their national sovereignty while remaining independent states

All members are democracies and must be to join the EU (it is a condition of membership to prevent dictatorships emerging in member states)

Question 30

complex interdependence:

CASE STUDY: The European Union

Answer 30

The EU has the highest level of economic interdependence of any regional or international organisation

It is a completely tariff free zone there are no import or export duties on goods and many services traded across the union

There is a single currency called the euro which 19 out of the 28 member states use

There is free movement of people and capital EU citizens have the right to live and work in any member state whether they are a citizen of that country or not

Question 31

complex interdependence:

CASE STUDY: The European Union

Answer 31

Due to this interdependence it’s inconceivable that EU member states would go to war with each other because politically economically and culturally the member states are mutually dependent and interconnected

So waging war would be entirely counter-productive and would not benefit anyone

Question 32

likelihood of global governance:

Answer 32

Global governance is a movement towards the political integration of states in order to address problems that face more than one state or region

A willingness for states to act co-operatively allows for the development of global governance and the creation of international institutions

Question 33

likelihood of global governance:

Answer 33

Although cooperation on a global level is also driven by other developments

states are not necessarily the principal actors in the international system

a number of nonstate actors (including religious groups social movements and businesses) are highly influential in international relations

Question 34

likelihood of global governance:

Answer 34

Religious groups

The Catholic Church was an influential force in politics in the Middle Ages it was so powerful that some European rulers broke with the Church to gain greater control over domestic politics

In recent years the spread of the Islamic State Isis in Iraq and Syria has led to American French British and Russian airstrikes to eradicate it from the region

Question 35

likelihood of global governance:

Answer 35

Social movements

The women’s movement and the green movement have led to reforms of national laws and policies

For example many countries have laws against sex discrimination and states have been making climate change agreements for years in order to limit global warming

Question 36

likelihood of global governance:

Answer 36

Business

Business is a powerful lobbying group at national and international levels

The promotion of business interests are behind many of the regulations initiated by Brussels

States struggle to raise corporation tax from TNCs which can Use legal loopholes to claim that profits are being earned in lower tax jurisdictions

The influence of TNCs is not necessarily a modern phenomenon — The British East India company formed in 1600 to exploit trade with India had such a profound impact on international relations that it led to the development of the British Empire

Question 37

international organisations:

Answer 37

Some liberals claim that the state is in decline as an actor in the international system and point to the growth in the number of IGOs NGOs and TNCs as evidence of this declining importance

A major factor in the escalation of these non-State actors is globalisation

Question 38

international organisations:

Answer 38

IGOs and NGOs are growing in numbers, most of them being created after World War II, and they are growing in influence too

For example IGOs such as the UN are taking a leading role in combating climate change

NGOs such as Oxfam are both a significant provider of disaster relief (much of which is funded by national governments) and an influential voice in the formulation of state international development aid policy

Question 39

international organisations:

Answer 39

the Number of TNCs has grown considerably

In 1970 there were around 7000 TNCs but by 2013 there were approximately 63,000

They account for over 50% of production and over 70% of world trade

Question 40

international organisations:

Answer 40

To argue as a realists do that states are the principal actors in the international system ignores the evidence of the growing importance of nonstate actors and renders an increasingly important part of international relations inexplicable

Question 41

international organisations:

Answer 41

While realists are pessimistic about the prospects for international cooperation via international organisations liberals are optimistic and see more to be gained from working together

Question 42

international organisations:

Answer 42

This liberal view stems from a recognition that many problems in the world do not respect state borders and that power is not a zero sum game

For example Norway cannot take effective action to prevent acid rain without the cooperation of its more industrialised neighbours in curbing their nitrogen and sulphur oxide emissions

like Hume’s scenario of draining a meadow, all states need to reduce their gas emissions for action to be effective

there are costs associated with reducing emissions such as more expensive energy, but states benefit more by having cleaner air which reduces conditions that are costly to the health care system such as asthma and lung disease

Question 43

international organisations:

Answer 43

Liberals put great faith in international organisations to promote cooperation in the international system

Woodrow Wilson proposed a league of Nations to guarantee the political and territorial independence of states

it failed but its successor the United Nations has been far more successful including its success in ensuring that the Cold War did not escalate into a full blown ‘hot’ war

However realists argue that the development of nuclear weapons did more to promote peace by making the prospect of war too awful to contemplate as it would cause each states’ mutually assured destruction

Question 44

international organisations:

Answer 44

The current regional and international organisations are the best examples of liberal theory in action

Question 45

international organisations:

CASE STUDY: The United Nations

Answer 45

UN is an embodiment of liberal ideas

It’s exceeded the league of Nations which was inspired by Woodrow Wilsons Fourteen Points which promoted many liberal ideas such as the self-determination of states freetrade disarmament and cooperation between states

the UN continues to promote these liberal ideas through its charter

Question 46

international organisations:

CASE STUDY: The United Nations

Answer 46

The aims of the UN as set out in its charter are to promote peace and security protect human rights uphold respect for international law and advance social progress and better living standards

Cooperation between states is encouraged by the principle of sovereign equality which is upheld in the general assembly by each state having only one vote in the assembly regardless of their size or power

Question 47

international organisations:

CASE STUDY: The United Nations

Answer 47

the UN protect the idea of self-determination by requiring the express consent of host member states before the deployment of peacekeeping missions to protect human rights in that country

It upholds respect of international law through the International Court of Justice that arbitrates disputes between member states helping them to resolve their disputes peacefully rather than resort to conflict

Question 48

international organisations:

CASE STUDY: The United Nations

Answer 48

The UN oversees many agencies and programs that promote social progress and better standards of living across the globe such as the world food program and UNICEF

In recent years it has set targets to reduce extreme poverty and the spread of diseases such as HIV and malaria through its millennium development goals

This concern with the social and economic welfare of the worlds population shows that states do not necessarily act in their own national interest but are capable of altruism and cooperation

Question 49

the Cobweb Model

Answer 49

And analogy often used to explain complex interdependence and liberalism is that of the cobweb

The cobweb model represents the links between states if one strand breaks the cobweb may begin to disintegrate

This demonstrates the extent to which states all dependent on and rely on each other