Case Studies

Question 1

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 1

In 2016 the Ivory Coast’s Laurent Gbagbo Became the first former head of state to go on trial before the ICC at the Hague

Three days later the African union supported Sudan is President Omar al-Bashir In his determination to ignore the warrant for his arrest on charges of genocide in Darfur

This demonstrates that the ICC is not a commanding authority states can choose to listen to it or not

Question 2

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 2

It also expressed deep concern regarding the wisdom of the continued prosecution of African leaders including Kenya’s deputy president William Ruto, Who faces charges of orchestrating violence after an election eight years ago

Question 3

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 3

Kenya’s president Uhuru Kenyatta, Who faced similar charges which the ICC dropped in 2014 is urging African members of the ICC to withdraw from it

This may not happen soon if at all and it is unclear how many African countries may wish to withdraw from the courts jurisdiction

However the episode makes it harder to promote the notion that no leader who commits atrocities should enjoy impunity anywhere

Question 4

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 4

Laurent Gbagbo Having lost a presidential election in 2010 after a decade in office refused to step down and is now accused of encouraging his militias and security forces to commit a string of atrocities in a bloodily vain effort to stay in power

In 2011 he was captured and seven months later sent to the Hague where he has been accused of prompting his henchmen to commit murder rape and other heinous crimes

Question 5

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 5

Militiamen Who backed the Ivory Coast’s current president against Laurent Gbagbo Also committed atrocities but none of them have been indicted

The courts chief prosecutor says she will investigate all sides however the current president of the Ivory Coast seems to Be against the idea of cooperating with her over crimes committed by his allies

Indicates the inequity in IGOs — unfair and inconsistent rulings, they prevent some crimes but ignores others, which reflects how Hedley Bull believed that international organisations would function

Question 6

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 6

The court has yet to refute the more damaging charge of bias against Africa

When it began to operate in 2002 African leaders were among its keenest backers, mindful of recent horrors in such places as Rwanda Congo and South Africa under apartheid

Most African governments signed the statue that led to the courts creation

The first nine situations and cases to be put before the court have all been African six were brought to it by the relevant African governments And the latest situation to be investigated by the ICC concerns atrocities committed in georgia during its war with Russia in 2008

Question 7

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 7

Furthermore the African leaders who castigate the court for tackling their peers have been less protective of smaller African countries and individuals who fall into the ICCs net

Niger’s government was happy to send a
Malian jihadist to the Hague last year

Democratic Republic of Congo has allowed the ICC to send back a warlord, Germain Katanga, To face further charges at home after serving a sentence handed down at the Hague

Uganda’s president, Yoweri Museveni, Is a critic of the ICC and was no doubt content when Dominic Ongwen A leader of the murderous Lord’s resistance Army that has blighted northern Uganda stood before the court in the Hague in 2016

Powerful states use IGOs like the ICC in their own national interest to protect themselves by getting rid of enemies

Question 8

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 8

Furthermore the African leaders who castigate the court for tackling their peers have been less protective of smaller African countries and individuals who fall into the ICCs net

Niger’s government was happy to send a
Malian jihadist to the Hague last year

Democratic Republic of Congo has allowed the ICC to send back a warlord, Germain Katanga, To face further charges at home after serving a sentence handed down at the Hague

Uganda’s president, Yoweri Museveni, Is a critic of the ICC and was no doubt content when Dominic Ongwen A leader of the murderous Lord’s resistance Army that has blighted northern Uganda stood before the court in the Hague in 2016

Powerful states use IGOs like the ICC in their own national interest to protect themselves by getting rid of enemies

Question 9

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 9

These examples demonstrate that the ICC is an attempt to make international laws which are sometimes enforced and adhered to, other times not

demonstrates that states are the highest authority — IGOs often have little power or authority to hold states to account for their actions (e.g. Sudan’s president ignores the warrant for his arrest on charges of genocide, states are able to ignore the ICC)

the ICC can bring issues to attention but seems to be ineffective in enforcing them

there is no single commanding authority — the world in anarchical and made up of a society of states

Question 10

AFRICAN LEADERS AND THE ICC:

Answer 10

These examples demonstrate that the ICC is an attempt to make international laws which are sometimes enforced and adhered to, other times not

demonstrates that states are the highest authority — IGOs often have little power or authority to hold states to account for their actions (e.g. Sudan’s president ignores the warrant for his arrest on charges of genocide, states are able to ignore the ICC)

the ICC can bring issues to attention but seems to be ineffective in enforcing them

there is no single commanding authority — the world in anarchical and made up of a society of states

Question 11

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 11

Believing that Iraq still owned and was prepared to use weapons of mass destruction USA and a limited number of allies including the UK invaded Iraq in 2003

The stated objective was to disarm Iraq and its leader Saddam Hussein of these weapons

Question 12

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 12

Believing that Iraq still owned and was prepared to use weapons of mass destruction USA and a limited number of allies including the UK invaded Iraq in 2003

The stated objective was to disarm Iraq and its leader Saddam Hussein of these weapons

Question 13

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 13

However the USA launched a military action without a clear UN Security Council resolution

In fact the last resolution before the invasion offered Iraq a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations

Russia and France did not support US invasion plans and urged UN weapons inspectors, who reported that Iraq was cooperating with inspections, to be given more time for assessments before any action was taken

Question 14

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 14

A combination of a ground assault and airstrikes brought Saddam Hussein’s regime to an end within days

Saddam fled but was later captured and tried by an Iraqi special tribunal and executed in 2006

After the invasion UN weapons inspectors concluded that there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq

Question 15

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 15

The Iraq war can be seen as an example of realism because

1) States of the most powerful actors — the USA ignored the UN went ahead with invasion despite not having a clear resolution, IGOs Have little power and authority
2) Society of states — No world government or higher authority in place to prevent the US taking matters into their own hands and acting unilaterally
3) Self-help system — USA had to take matters into their own hands and decided to invade as a matter of self interest i.e. to maintain their own security as they feared Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (or to increase their power in the Middle East)

Question 16

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 16

A combination of a ground assault and airstrikes brought Saddam Hussein’s regime to an end within days

Saddam fled but was later captured and tried by an Iraqi special tribunal and executed in 2006

After the invasion UN weapons inspectors concluded that there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq

Question 17

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 17

The Iraq war can be seen as an example of realism because

1) States of the most powerful actors — the USA ignored the UN went ahead with invasion despite not having a clear resolution, IGOs Have little power and authority
2) Society of states — No world government or higher authority in place to prevent the US taking matters into their own hands and acting unilaterally
3) Self-help system — USA had to take matters into their own hands and decided to invade as a matter of self interest i.e. to maintain their own security as they feared Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (or to increase their power in the Middle East)

Question 18

THE IRAQ WAR (2003):

Answer 18

However the USA launched a military action without a clear UN Security Council resolution

In fact the last resolution before the invasion offered Iraq a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations

Russia and France did not support US invasion plans and urged UN weapons inspectors, who reported that Iraq was cooperating with inspections, to be given more time for assessments before any action was taken

Question 19

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 19

In 2014 Russian backed militia entered the Crimea region in Ukraine and within months Crimea was declared independent

Ukraine form any part of the Soviet union has long been torn between the west and potentially to join the EU and the east where Russia offered Ukraine very favourable gas supplies

Since the breakup of the Soviet union an agreement with Ukraine allowed Russia to continue to operate from the Sevastopol port in Crimea’s Black Sea region, Russia’s only warm water port

Question 20

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 20

In 2014 Russian backed militia entered the Crimea region in Ukraine and within months Crimea was declared independent

Ukraine form any part of the Soviet union has long been torn between the west and potentially to join the EU and the east where Russia offered Ukraine very favourable gas supplies

Since the breakup of the Soviet union an agreement with Ukraine allowed Russia to continue to operate from the Sevastopol port in Crimea’s Black Sea region, Russia’s only warm water port

Question 21

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 21

Russia did not invade Ukraine with conventional military forces but reports suggested the presence of special forces wearing uniforms without any identifying insignia

Pro-Russian rebel groups then became active in the predominantly ethnically Russian eastern regions of Ukraine, some with Russian government backing

Question 22

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 22

Russia’s actions in Crimea can be seen as an example of realism because

1) State are the most powerful actors — No higher power to prevent Russians annexation of Crimea
2) States seek to advance their own self interest — Russia wanted secure access to the Sevastopol port in Crimea’s Black Sea region
3) Self-help system — State act to build up their own security and national interest through military power, Russia used various military tactics during its annexation of Crimea

Question 23

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 23

Russia’s actions in Crimea can be seen as an example of realism because

1) State are the most powerful actors — No higher power to prevent Russians annexation of Crimea
2) States seek to advance their own self interest — Russia wanted secure access to the Sevastopol port in Crimea’s Black Sea region
3) Self-help system — State act to build up their own security and national interest through military power, Russia used various military tactics during its annexation of Crimea

Question 24

RUSSIA’S ANNEXATION OF CRIMEA (2014):

Answer 24

Russia did not invade Ukraine with conventional military forces but reports suggested the presence of special forces wearing uniforms without any identifying insignia

Pro-Russian rebel groups then became active in the predominantly ethnically Russian eastern regions of Ukraine, some with Russian government backing

Question 26

example of a proxy war during the Cold War period: Afghanistan

Answer 26

The Soviet union and the USA did not fight each other on the battlefield, both instead engaged in proxy wars using other actors to fight each other

For example in the 1980s the USA armed the Mujahideen In Afghanistan to fight the Soviet union without actually deploying troops of its own

Question 27

example of a proxy war during the Cold War period: Afghanistan

Answer 27

The Soviet union and the USA did not fight each other on the battlefield, both instead engaged in proxy wars using other actors to fight each other

For example in the 1980s the USA armed the Mujahideen In Afghanistan to fight the Soviet union without actually deploying troops of its own

Question 28

RUSSIA v USA: military power

Answer 28

Russia is weaker than the USA in terms of troop numbers and naval and air power

It only has one aircraft carrier which is unreliable and needed to be escorted through the English Channel by a tug on standby

The USA is technologically more advanced than Russia and has highly affective drone technology as proved in Afghanistan Iraq Pakistan and Syria in degrading al-Qaeda

Demonstrates an imbalance between the USA and Russia in which the USA is more powerful

Question 29

RUSSIA v USA: nuclear warheads

Answer 29

Russia is estimated to have 7300 nuclear warheads

The USA is estimated to have 6970 nuclear warheads

Although arguably this does not make a huge difference as using them would only need to mutually assured destruction

Question 30

RUSSIA v USA: willingness to use military power

Answer 30

President Putin appears to have made a strategic decision to replace the USA as the major global power willing to use its military on the international stage

Putin is prepared to use boots on the ground drone and naval power

Examples of Russia being prepared to use its military power on weaker states = Georgia Syria (Established itself as a power in the Middle East) + Ukraine

Under the Obama administration there was great reluctance to use military power — there was little support for this in Congress and amongst the wider public

the USA shied away from direct military action in Syria and only very reluctantly agreed to airstrikes Libya

However under Trump the USA has carried out airstrikes in Syria and in 2018 the US indicated that it intended to maintain an open ended military presence in Syria to counter Iran’s influence and oust Assad

Question 30

RUSSIA v USA: cyber power

Answer 30

The CIA accused Russia of interfering in the 2016 US presidential election is when it leaked embarrassing Democratic party emails

Germany has also accuse Russia of using offensive cyber power but Russia denies the allegations

There is little evidence in the public domain of the USA employing offensive cyber power, However the USA has used defensive cyber power to protect key cyber interests and is technologically more advanced than Russia

Question 32

RUSSIA v USA: economic power

Answer 32

Economic sanctions in Russia have caused significant damage and falling oil prices hit Russia’s significant oil export industry hard

Although sanctions may be ineffective — Putin like the Soviet union seems to ignore them and focuses on building military power instead

The US economy has recovered from the global financial crisis of 2008 to 9, it is however losing ground though its nearest rival China is yet to overtake it, it is still the largest economy in the world

Question 34

RUSSIA v USA: tactics

Answer 34

Russia has favoured unilateral action above seeking approval from the UN for action in Syria and has out right breached international law in its annexation of Crimea

The Obama administration was highly cautious in using military resources — Drone strikes rather than boots on the ground were the weapon of choice

In 2017, Trump unleashed the Mother Of All Bombs (MOAB) For the first time in combat against the so-called Islamic State in Afghanistan

The trump administration also launched airstrikes against the Assad regime in 2017 in response to alleged chemical weapon attacks

Question 34

RUSSIA v USA: conclusion

Answer 34

Russia’s power is derived from its overwhelming willingness to use it otherwise much weaker resources

It has decisively increased its use of military power in spaces ceded by western powers most notably in Syria

There are signs that Russia is increasingly willing to use cyber power offensively

In 2018 Putin was singled out for his use of hybrid warfare — a military strategy that employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare and cyber warfare with other influencing methods such as fake news and electoral intervention

under Obama the USA remained the predominant military power in terms of resources but it was unwilling to use them instead resorting to economic sanctions rather than military power to stem Russian aggression

Question 35

RUSSIA v USA: military power

Answer 35

Russia is weaker than the USA in terms of troop numbers and naval and air power

It only has one aircraft carrier which is unreliable and needed to be escorted through the English Channel by a tug on standby

The USA is technologically more advanced than Russia and has highly affective drone technology as proved in Afghanistan Iraq Pakistan and Syria in degrading al-Qaeda

Demonstrates an imbalance between the USA and Russia in which the USA is more powerful

Question 36

RUSSIA v USA: nuclear warheads

Answer 36

Russia is estimated to have 7300 nuclear warheads

The USA is estimated to have 6970 nuclear warheads

Although arguably this does not make a huge difference as using them would only need to mutually assured destruction

Question 37

RUSSIA v USA: willingness to use military power

Answer 37

President Putin appears to have made a strategic decision to replace the USA as the major global power willing to use its military on the international stage

Putin is prepared to use boots on the ground drone and naval power

Examples of Russia being prepared to use its military power on weaker states = Georgia Syria (Established itself as a power in the Middle East) + Ukraine

Under the Obama administration there was great reluctance to use military power — there was little support for this in Congress and amongst the wider public

the USA shied away from direct military action in Syria and only very reluctantly agreed to airstrikes Libya

However under Trump the USA has carried out airstrikes in Syria and in 2018 the US indicated that it intended to maintain an open ended military presence in Syria to counter Iran’s influence and oust Assad

Question 38

RUSSIA v USA: cyber power

Answer 38

The CIA accused Russia of interfering in the 2016 US presidential election is when it leaked embarrassing Democratic party emails

Germany has also accuse Russia of using offensive cyber power but Russia denies the allegations

There is little evidence in the public domain of the USA employing offensive cyber power, However the USA has used defensive cyber power to protect key cyber interests and is technologically more advanced than Russia

Question 39

RUSSIA v USA: economic power

Answer 39

Economic sanctions in Russia have caused significant damage and falling oil prices hit Russia’s significant oil export industry hard

Although sanctions may be ineffective — Putin like the Soviet union seems to ignore them and focuses on building military power instead

The US economy has recovered from the global financial crisis of 2008 to 9, it is however losing ground though its nearest rival China is yet to overtake it, it is still the largest economy in the world

Question 40

RUSSIA v USA: tactics

Answer 40

Russia has favoured unilateral action above seeking approval from the UN for action in Syria and has out right breached international law in its annexation of Crimea

The Obama administration was highly cautious in using military resources — Drone strikes rather than boots on the ground were the weapon of choice

In 2017, Trump unleashed the Mother Of All Bombs (MOAB) For the first time in combat against the so-called Islamic State in Afghanistan

The trump administration also launched airstrikes against the Assad regime in 2017 in response to alleged chemical weapon attacks

Question 41

RUSSIA v USA: conclusion

Answer 41

Russia’s power is derived from its overwhelming willingness to use it otherwise much weaker resources

It has decisively increased its use of military power in spaces ceded by western powers most notably in Syria

There are signs that Russia is increasingly willing to use cyber power offensively

In 2018 Putin was singled out for his use of hybrid warfare — a military strategy that employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare and cyber warfare with other influencing methods such as fake news and electoral intervention

under Obama the USA remained the predominant military power in terms of resources but it was unwilling to use them instead resorting to economic sanctions rather than military power to stem Russian aggression but Even these economic sanctions were restrained

The USA uses cyber power predominantly defensively

Question 42

example of the inevitability of war due to the anarchical world system

Answer 42

The world system is anarchical so there is no authority capable of preventing conflict unless states judge that conflict is not in their interests

For example international efforts through the UN and Geneva peace talks failed to restrain the various actors from pursuing their perceived interests during the Syrian crisis

Question 43

inevitability of war: CHINA

Answer 43

Staggering rise of China which is soon expected to overtake the US economy by 2020 possesses nuclear weapons has the worlds largest standing army worlds biggest population

the US is also in debt to China Which is a problem because the US sees its economic power as essential to its security but this is under threat from China

when a rising power threatens an
established one the probability of conflict is high

Question 44

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 44

That has long been disagreement over territorial waters between the nation states in the South China Sea region including China Malaysia and the Philippines Taiwan and Vietnam

The region is of strategic value because it is thought to contain valuable natural resources including oil and gas it is also a key shipping route

Question 45

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 45

In recent years China has attempted to expand its territorial waters in the region by building islands and increasing naval patrols

At the same time it has been investing in building up and modernising its naval forces including developing new and improved aircraft carriers

Question 46

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 46

In response the US Navy has carried out so-called freedom of navigation patrols in what it considers to be international waters but which China claims as its own territorial waters

As China’s naval power increases the risk of a clash between these two powerful nation states in the South China Sea increases

Question 47

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 47

In 2013 a UN tribunal ruled that China was not complying with the relevant international law (the UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea)

China called the ruling “a piece of paper that is destined to come to naught”

Question 48

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 48

The USA has also increased its diplomatic and military influence in Asia

President Obama’s administration announced a significant payment to Asia indicating that it did not want to give the impression that the US influence in the Pacific would be reduced

the USA continues to maintain a significant military presence in the Asia-Pacific region

Question 49

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 49

Both China and the USA’s activity in the South China Sea are an example of Powerful states wishing to maintain power and influence within a key strategic region

Question 50

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 50

China’s actions can be seen as an illustration of a power seeking to become a hegemon state

China is seeking hegemony by building islands and increasing naval patrols therefore attempting to expand its territory

It is also seeking to increase its military strength particularly its naval forces

Furthermore China has refused to comply with international law and dismissed the UN ruling completely, demonstrating that it is trying to become the dominant force in Asia and the rest of the globe

This is why they are attempting to challenge the established hegemony of the US and take control of this valuable region

Question 51

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 51

The response of the USA illustrates Kenneth Waltz argument that the system of international anarchy means there is no higher power to prevent the use of force so states can only ensure their survival through self-help

USA considers the water in the South China Sea to be international but China claims it to be their own territory as there is no higher power to resolve this issue the use of force cannot be prevented and conflict between the states will continue

China has ignored international law and UN rulings so the USA has taken action into their own hands

Both are seeking to increase their power and ensure survival by controlling that key strategic region

Question 52

THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:

Answer 52

The current clash between the USA and China over the South China Sea can be seen as an example of offensive realism in action

This is because both states are concerned with power — China seeks to become a global hegemon and exceed in all aspects of world power including military and economic

However it can also be interpreted as an example of defensive realism in action as the US actions may be seen as defensive realism as they are concerned with security more than their own power

Question 53

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 53

In 2015 President Putin approved a new Russian national security strategy which declared that NATOs enlargement in terms of member states meant that the alliance was getting closer to Russia’s borders and now represented an ‘external threat’

It also stated that the buildup of NATO forces in countries bordering the Russian Federation was not consistent with international law and that Russia’s foreign policy has triggered a counteraction from the USA and its allies

Question 54

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 54

NATO enlargement

1999 the Czech Republic Hungary and Poland to become the first former Soviet bloc states to join NATO taking the alliances borders some 400 miles towards Russia

2002 seven countries Lithuania Estonia Latvia Bulgaria Romania Slovakia Slovenia invited to join the alliance at a summit in Prague

Question 55

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 55

With the end of the Cold War in 1991 many expected that relations between Russia and the NATO member states would ease

During the immediate aftermath of the Cold War with Russia’s territory much decreased and its power significantly weakened NATO expanded to include 10 former Warsaw Pact or Soviet states

Question 56

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 56

Some analysts suggest that western powers missed an opportunity to reassure Russia and to try to influence it to seek a greater partnership with its European neighbours

Instead of the conclusion is that NATO on the west decided to expand their power and influence when Russia was at its weakest — seen as a threat and an attempt to encircle Russia

Question 57

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 57

western capitalists see the open door policy and enlargement of organisations such as NATO and the EU contributing to wider European stability

but Russia sees the expansion of these organisations as destabilising European security and leaving Russia increasingly isolated

Senior Russian officials and thinkers point to NATOs enlargement and the ballistic missile defence project as activities that are not those of a partner

Question 58

the security dilemma

RUSSIA v NATO:

Answer 58

These conflicting perspectives have been made worse by the fact that the west and Russia have drawn very different conclusions about the key developments in Europe during the post-Cold War era

Most recently the West has accused Russia of aggression against Ukraine and illegally annexing Crimea

Russia has flatly rejected this and asserts that it is responding to a crisis provoked by the US and EU and is merely securing its interests against NATO expansion

Question 59

examples of public opinion changing foreign policy

Answer 59

The Vietnam war

Canada did not join the Iraq war due to public opinion it also saw the amount of protest in Britain and turned away from the idea of war

Brexit referendum — public pressure to hold a referendum and Cameron caved into this pressure

Trump’s travel ban — the public was so outraged they bought a case before the courts

Question 60

complex interdependence: the global financial crisis

Answer 60

In 2008 to 9 a house price crash sparked a lending crisis in US banks which spread around the world

the effects were felt in the global banking system as banks became nervous about taking on risk and stopped lending to each other

in some cases customers began withdrawing their savings putting banks and even greater pressure

it lead to what has been described as the worst global financial crisis since the great depression in the 1930s

Question 61

complex interdependence: the global financial crisis

Answer 61

Economic growth slowed across the world and unemployment rose

North America and Europe were particularly severely affected and economic growth in China also slowed

A crisis was sparked in the Eurozone single currency area as several indebted economies notably Greece were unable to borrow from international markets and required other Eurozone members and the European Central bank to bail them out

Question 62

complex interdependence: the global financial crisis

Answer 62

The financial crisis fallout dominated UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown’s time in office

As part of international efforts to deal with an international crisis in 2009 Brown hosted a G20 summit in London

The meeting resulted in national governments and the IMF agreeing a financial stimulus To bail out indebted economies And attempt to stabilise the global economic system

Question 63

the UN: impacts

Answer 63

Positive contributions to peacekeeping — has sent 69 peacekeeping missions to troublespots over the past 60 years and there are currently 16 peacekeeping operations active in the world today carried out by around 125,000 people

It cannot truly enforce anything and cannot stop states acting unilaterally as the US did in the Iraq war but this caused a great outcry as it was seen to lack legitimacy which demonstrates that ignoring the UN is not taken lightly

has brought many conflicts to an end through mediation e.g. Sierra Leone and is a major factor behind the 40% decline in conflict globally

International atomic energy agency — nuclear Inspector preventing nuclear proliferation

Cleared landmines in around 30 countries

Supporting disarmament — treaties such as the chemical weapons Convention which was ratified by 190 states

Preventing genocide — the 1948 genocide Convention was ratified by 146 states

Question 64

the IMF: impacts

Answer 64

0% interest rate on loans to low income countries like Greece and Cyprus as well as the UK in 1976 under labour

Advised these countries on needed policy adjustments (e.g. requiring them to cut back on spending)

provided loans as they were experiencing actual or potential balance of payments problems, which has help them stabilise their currencies, restore conditions for economic growth and rebuild their international reserves

The IMF is able to lend $1 trillion to its member states for these purposes