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IB-BIOLOGY-SL 2022-2023 > Macromolecules (2.1, 2.3, 2.4) > Flashcards

Macromolecules (2.1, 2.3, 2.4) Flashcards

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1
Q

What compounds are always carbon-based?

A

Organic molecules

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2
Q

Carbon can form a diversity of stable compounds due to:

A

Its ability to form covalent bonds with atoms of carbon or other elements.

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3
Q

How many bonds can Carbon have?

A

Up to 4

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4
Q

What are the macromolecules?

A

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids

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5
Q

What atoms are always present in macromolecules?
… In proteins and Nucleic Acids?
— In some lipids?

A
  1. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (Carbo-Hydrate)
  2. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
  3. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus (phospholipids)
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6
Q

What is the ratio of Carbon to Hydrogen to Oxygen in Carbohydrates?

A

1 carbons: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen

(C5H10O5, C15H30O15, etc.)

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7
Q

Give examples of carbohydrates:

A

Alpha-D-Glucose, Beta-D-Glucose, Starch, Ribose, Cellulose

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8
Q

Give examples of lipids:

A

Triglycerides, Steroids, Phospholipids

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9
Q

Give examples of proteins:

A

Globular and Fibrous proteins.

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10
Q

Give examples of Nucleic Acids:

A

DNA, RNA

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11
Q

The metabolic processes in a cell consist of

A

Anabolic and Catabolic reactions

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12
Q

Define Metabolism:

A

all of the enzymatic reactions that take place inside a living organism.

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13
Q

Define Catabolism:

A

the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules and includes the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers.

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14
Q

Define Anabolism:

A

the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules; it is a process that requires the input of energy. Anabolism includes the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions.

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15
Q

Define Hydrolysis Reaction:

A

The breaking of chemical bonds by the addition of water molecules.

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16
Q

Define Condensation Reaction:

A

refers to the reaction in which two smaller organic molecules combine to form a larger molecule with the accompanied formation of water or some other simple molecule.

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17
Q

What is metabolism in terms of Anabolism and catabolism?

A

Metabolism = Anabolism + Catabolism

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18
Q

What is Urea? Formula, Function, Place that it can be found

A

Urea is an organic compound with the formula CO(NH2)2. It is used by the human body to excrete nitrogen because urea is non-toxic and highly soluble. Urea is also widely used as a nitrogen fertilizer. This application of urea has led to its artificial synthesis on a large scale.

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19
Q

What is the function of carbohydrates?

A

They mainly provide energy, in the form of sugars like glucose and fructose, but they also make up structures like cellulose, which form the cell wall of plant cells.

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20
Q

What can carbohydrates be classified as?

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

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21
Q

What are monosaccharides, and disaccharides classified as? What about polysaccharides?

A

Monosaccharides and disaccharides are both considered sugars, which are polar and soluble in water. Polysaccharides are macromolecules resulting from the polymerization (condensation) of sugars and are not soluble in water.

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22
Q

What is the simplest type of carbohydrate?

A

Monosaccharide (3-7 carbon atoms)

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23
Q

What are the carbons in a monosaccharide joined to?

A

hydroxyl group (-OH)

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24
Q

Cite examples of monosaccharides:

A

ribose, glucose, fructose and galactose.

25
Q

What links together two monosaccharides and what bond is formed?

A

Monosaccharides act as monomers to make larger complex carbohydrate molecules. Two monosaccharide monomers are linked together by a condensation reaction which forms a glycosidic bond producing a disaccharide, releasing one water molecule. Several monomer units linked together form a polysaccharide.

26
Q

What’s the difference between monomers and polymers?

A

Monomers are small molecules that can be joined to form more complex molecules called polymers in a repeated fashion.

27
Q

What’s the difference between Alpha-D-Glucose and Beta-D-Glucose?

A

Draw it

28
Q

What are disaccharides and cite examples?

A

Two monosaccharides (anabolism - condensation)
glucose + glucose = maltose + H2O
fructose + glucose = sucrose + H2O
galactose + glucose = lactose + H2O

29
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

A large carbohydrate molecule. It contains many small sugar molecules that are joined chemically. Also called glycan.

30
Q

What do polysaccharides do?

A

Polysaccharides play an important role in the supply and storage of energy. In plants, starch is used to store energy; this becomes very obvious if you consider potatoes and other tubers. Starch is made up of a mixture of two polysaccharides, namely amylose and amylopectin. In the case of animals, glycogen is the carbohydrate used to store energy. Other than storing energy, polysaccharides can also be used as a structural component. For instance, cellulose present in plant cell walls gives the walls extra strength and protects the cell from over-expanding and bursting, as well as storing enough energy to be a source for biofuels.

31
Q

What’s the difference between the glucose monomers in starch?

A

In starch molecules, all glucose monomers are oriented in the same direction. In contrast, cellulose molecules are made up of glucose monomers that rotate 180 degrees around the backbone chain. In starch the arrangement of glucose molecules can be linear, which is called amylose, or branched, which is called amylopectin

32
Q

All lipids share one characteristic…

A

They have little or no affinity for water. They are mostly hydrophobic, or water-repellent. They mainly consist of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids can be simple, such as fats, oils, and waxes. Lipids are non-polar and insoluble in water (they are hydrophobic), but soluble in organic solvents.

33
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions between one glycerol and three fatty acids, creating ester bonds.

34
Q

What are the two types of triglycerides? How do they present themselves at room temperature? Cite examples

A

There are two main types of triglycerides: fats and oils. Fats are solid at room temperature (e.g. butter, lard), while oils are liquid (e.g. olive oil, sunflower oil).

35
Q

Wtf is a carboxylic acid?

A

Acids that possess a -COOH (carboxyl) functional group attached to the head of a long hydrocarbon chain

36
Q

What are the types of fatty acids?

A

Saturated and Unsaturated

37
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated acids?

A

A saturated fatty acid has no double bonds between any of the carbon atoms that make up the hydrocarbon chain.

An unsaturated fatty acid can be monounsaturated if it has just one double bond and, logically, a polyunsaturated fatty acid has two or more double bonds in its hydrocarbon chain. Unsaturated fatty acids can be either cis or trans isomers depending on the position of the two hydrogen atoms around the carbon-carbon double bond

38
Q

What’s different with phospholipids?

A

If one fatty acid in a triglyceride is replaced by a phosphate group, -PO4, it produces a phospholipid, which is the major component of membranes.

39
Q

What is the structure of steroids and what are some examples?

A

Steroids, along with triglycerides and phospholipids, are also lipids. However, they do not resemble lipids because they have a structure consisting of four fused rings. Yet, steroids are lipids because they are hydrophobic and insoluble in water. Cholesterol (Figure 5) and sexual hormones are examples of steroids.

40
Q

What is the healthy fatty acid?

A

Unsaturated fatty acids of the cis type are considered good fatty acids, and hence lipids consisting of these are considered to be beneficial for the body.

41
Q

What are polypeptides?

A

A number of linked peptides (chain of amino acids), a sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

42
Q

What is the composition of Amino Acids?

A

carboxyl group (COOH) and amine group (NH2)

43
Q

How many different types of amino acids are found in protein?

A

20

44
Q

If a polypeptide is made up of 8 amino acids, how many different combinations are possible?

A

8^20

45
Q

Name the bond that forms when two amino acids react together in a condensation reaction.

A

Peptide bond

46
Q

Which molecules are monomers for polypeptides?

A

Amino acids

47
Q

What is the role of DNA in the formation of proteins?

A

The structure of enzymes is determined by DNA.

48
Q

What determines the shape and function of the protein?

A

The order of the amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein.

49
Q

What does the R group do in polypeptides?

A

Differs the amino acids, which determine the types of bonds and interactions with other molecules that they can make.

50
Q

What is conformation in polypeptides?

A

Protein conformation may be defined as the arrangement in space of its constituent atoms which determine the overall shape of the molecule.

51
Q

What is the primary structure of polypeptides?

A

The sequence of amino acids in a protein is called the primary structure. It defines all aspects of the structure and function of a protein.

52
Q

What is the secondary structure of polypeptides?

A

The secondary structure involves the folding of the chains on themselves to form pleated sheets or alpha helixes.

53
Q

What is the tertiary structure of polypeptides?

A

When the polypeptide folds and coils to form a complex three-dimensional shape, it gives rise to the tertiary structure

54
Q

What is the quaternary structure of polypeptides?

A

A quaternary structure only occurs in proteins that are made up of two or more polypeptide chains and refers to the way the multiple subunits are held together in a multi-subunit complex. Examples of proteins with quaternary structure are hemoglobin and rubisco.

55
Q

What is a proteome?

A

A proteome is a set of proteins produced in an organism, system, or biological context. They depend on your genome; therefore, each individual has different proteomes.

56
Q

What are Globular Proteins?

A

Globular proteins, as the name implies, are globe-like or spherical. They tend to play active roles in the cell’s metabolism. They consist of complex polypeptide chains that can be linked to other chains to form large complex proteins. An example of this is hemoglobin, which has two alpha and two beta chains. Globular proteins are usually soluble in water because their hydrophobic R groups are folded into the core of the molecule, away from the surrounding water molecules.

57
Q

What are Fibrous Proteins?

A

Fibrous proteins are more like a fiber; long and thread-like. Usually, fibrous proteins are made of long polypeptide chains where the hydrophobic R groups are exposed, making the molecule insoluble. They are often found in structural parts of organisms, such as tendons and skin (e.g. collagen and keratin).

58
Q

What is denaturation?

A

Denaturation is a process in which proteins lose their secondary and tertiary structures (in some cases also quaternary). The hydrogen bonds formed between R-groups of amino acids and amino groups of different amino acids are disrupted. Active sites lose their shape. As a result, the whole enzyme loses its enzymatic properties.

59
Q

What can cause denaturation?

A

There are two main ways to denature proteins. One is by exposing the protein to higher temperatures, and the other is by changing the pH of a surrounding solution. Proteins have an optimum temperature and pH at which they function best. Any deviation from these values influences the functionality of the proteins.

IB-BIOLOGY-SL 2022-2023 (14 decks)

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