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bio 2 > Macromolecules > Flashcards

Macromolecules Flashcards

1
Q

Lipids

A

Hydrophobic

3 different type

neutral fats
phospholipids (polar because of phosphate group)
steroids

9.3Kcal/gm fats while carbohydrate 3.79Kcalm/gm

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2
Q

Neutral fats

A

Triglycerides
fats and oils in energy storage, acts as insulator
animals convert excess sugar into fats
cis or trans

tricylglyerol
not true polymers
made from glycerol and 3 fatty acids dehydration synthesis (acid comes from carboxyl group)
dehydration sythesis
saturated (solid), mono/polyunsaturated (liquid)

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3
Q

hydrogenation

A

double bonds broken and pressurized hydrogen molecules are inserted, may make fatty acid saturated or trans

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4
Q

digestion of triglycerides

A

because not soluble in water they cannot enter our bloodstream easily from digestrive track

1ry role of stomach is to break fats up

bile salts found in bile (synthesized by liver, stored in gall bladder) are amphipathic and break down fats into small droplets, process called emylsification
enzymes hydrolyze fats into fatty acids to be absorbed by the mucosal cells of the intestinal wall
once isnide they are reformulated bak into triglyferides packadeged into lipoproteins (trasport vessels) called chylomicrons
vehicles that keeps soluble so that it can be transported
then released into lymphatic system until they are returned into the bloodstream

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5
Q

chylomicrons lipoproteins

A

vehicles lipoproteins

outer shell if phospholipid
core of fats (cholesterol ex)
surface of proteins that allows tissues to recognize it

higher percentage of lipids, lower density (LDL) and higher percentage of proteins, higher density (HDL)

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6
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

the buildup of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls.

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7
Q

steroids

A

carbon skeleton with 4 fused rings, 3 contain 6 carbons and 1 contains 5

cholesterol is a precursor of most steroids (ex vitamin D, estrogen, testosterone, cortisol (blood sugar regulation) aldosterone (retaining salt and water) bile) also present in animal cell membranes

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8
Q

LDL HDL

A

LDL transports cholesterol to peripheral to make it available to tissues fir membrane or horone synthesis or storage

too much can lead to arteosclerosis (accumilatiom of LDL in the arteries

HDL can prevent atherosclerosis since they remove LDL plaques buildups and bring them back to the liver

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9
Q

phospholipids

A

2 fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate group which adds a negative charge to is

amphipathic
Polar hydriphilic head
non polar hydrophobic tail

important for phospholipid bilayers of cell membrane, trnaport of hydrophobic compunds in the blood,

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10
Q

sphingolipids

A

2 types of phospholipids in cellular membrane: phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids

long hydrocarbon tail and a polar doman that included an amino group

important component of lipid rafts because of how highly dynamic

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11
Q

lipid raft

A

can concentrate and segregate proteins withing bilayer

used for signal transduction, which is initiated by complex protein protein interractions
lipids raft can change their size and composition in response to stimuli to favour these interactions, acitvating signalling cascades

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12
Q

sphingomyelin

A

major constituent of cell membrane, mainly in myelin sheath (protects axon and increases speed or nerve impule)

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13
Q

Protein functions

A

Hormonal (ex insulin)

Receptor: response of cell to chemical stimuli

Contractile and motor proteins: actin

Structual protein: support ex keratin

enzymatic: accelerate chem reaction (ex digestive proteins)

Defensive proteins: antibodies

Storage proteins: storage of amino acids ex casein

Trasnport protein: hemoglobin

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14
Q

Proteins general

A

20 amino acids

alpha (a) carboon (bonded to 4 different substituent, each amino acid has H3N+, COO-, H and an R chain (R chain determines polarity)

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15
Q

amino acid roles

A

produce energy
acts as neurotransmitters
building blocks for proteins

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16
Q

L alanine and D alanine

A

because there are 4 different chemical groups bonded to the carbon, it is chiral (two mirror isomers can exist) (enantiomers)

these are the L and D, and L are almost exclusively present because protein synthesis machinery cannot use D amino acids

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17
Q

zwitterions

A

it is an ion possessing both positive and negative electrical charges. Therefore, zwitterions are mostly electrically neutral (the net formal charge is usually zero)

18
Q

amino acids buffer

A

in low pH, COOH (carboxyl) accepts a proton

in high pH, HN3+ (amino group) donates a proton

so acts as a buffer

19
Q

non polar and polar amino acids

A

non polar:

hydrophobic
resides in the interior of proteins because they repel aqueous environment
doesnt ionize or do H Bonds

Polar:

hydrophilic
help proteins dissolve in solutions
form H bonds
exterior surface of proteins or in reactive centers of enzymes

20
Q

acidic and basic amino acids

A

acidic

side chain (R chain) that contains a carboxyl group
at cellular pH carboxyl group dissociates so that the R group has a negative charge

basic

has a protonation nitrogen in their side chain

very stable interractions known as salt bridges can occur when two oppositely charged side chains are in close proximity
alpha amino and alpha carboxyl groups can also participate in electrostatic interactions

21
Q

essential amino acids

A

must be consumed, cannot be synthesized

plants must be able to synthesize all their amino acids

22
Q

peptide bond

A

amino acids are likend by joining the amino end of one molecule and the carboxyl end of the other, and dehydrating to form a covalent bond (peptide bond) creating backbone chain from which side chains can come out of

at one end of the polypeptide these is a free amino acid and the other end a carboxyl group (N-terminus and C-terminus)

23
Q

protein conformation

A

conformation determines how protein works
ex: antibodies which bind to foreign substances
hormones fitting into receptors
enzymes binding

24
Q

Structural levels of a protein

A

primary: sequence of its amino acids, determined by the nucleotide sequence.

secondary: alpha helix and beta pleated (caused by hudrogen bonds between carboxyl and amino groups)

tertiary: final 3 dimentsional shape determined by (van der walls (repulsion of nonpolr chains), covalent bonds (disulfide) ionic bonds (salt bridges between cabroxyl group who lost its h and amino group positvely charged) and hydrogen bonds) (R group involved)

quartenary: two or more polypeptide

25
Q

disulfide bridge

A

cystein monomers (amino acids with sulfhydryl) are brought close together

26
Q

denaturation

A

loss of secondary or tertiary or quaternary structure due to disruption of non covalent/ disuldie bonds

heat, pH, mechnaical, inorganic salts, etc

can cause alzeihmers, cancer,

27
Q

main fucntion carbohydrates

A

main energy source
energy storage as starch or glycogen
structural components of cells ex cellulose

28
Q

ratio

A

1:2:1
carbon hydrogen oxygen

29
Q

examples sacharrides

A

mono: glucose fructose galactose
di: sucrose lactose maltose
poly: starch glycogen cellulose chitin

30
Q

aldose and ketose

A

isomers
glucose aldose (has cabronyl group at end of chain)
fructose ketose (carbonyl group in the middle)

31
Q

alpha dn beta glucose

A

alpha: hydroxyde under hydrogen
beta: hydroxyde group over

in water, a and B interconvert and predominate

32
Q

formula glucose

A

(CH2O)n

33
Q

importance monosaccharides

A

major nutrients for cells (cellular respiration)
carbon skeleton serve as material for synthesis of small organic molecules like amino acid and fatty acid

unusual roles

chitin used to make strong and flezible surgicla thread on wounds that will decompose

peptidoglycan forms bacterial cell walls
vireous humour in eye has polysacharides, cartilage, cornea, cavities between bones

34
Q

homeostasis glucose

A

nervous system requires steady and constant supply of glucose

regulated by isnulin (produced by beta cells of pancreas) and glucagon (produced by alpha cells of pancreas)

35
Q

insulin

A

insulin: in response to high blood glucose, signal trasnduction cascade, increase ability to transport glucoe across plasma membrane.

liver: signal cascade to tranform glucoe into glycogen
deactivates cascade that breaks down glycogen into glucose

adipocytes (fat cells): signal cascade to tranform glucoe into glycogen

muscles cells: signal cascade to tranform glucoe into glycogen and uptake of amino acids

36
Q

glucagon

A

by alpha cells of pancreas

liver cells: break down glygocen into glucose, deactivates cascade to produce glygogen

fat cells: brakdown stored fat and release fatty acids to be used as fuel for other cells other than nervous

muscles: cascade to breakdown protein to release amino acids and be sent to liver to be transformed into glucose for brain

37
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

inability to produce or detect insule

high glucose levels, spills into the urine because kidney cannot reabsorb it fast enough

because more soluble into urine, water will follow the urine and dehydrate you

because cells cannot intake glucose without insulin, they breka down protein and fats, body weight declines

ketones are metabolites of fat breakdown and are acidic, so when accumulate into blood, can lead to acidosis and death

type 1: autoimune, destroys beta cells of pancreas so no insulin priduced

type 2: more common, normal production of insulin at beginning but body resistant to isnulien. can be faulty receptors

38
Q

olgosaccharides

A

smal sugar polymers, 3-6 monosaccharides

often found in plasma membrane attached to glycoproteins and glycolipids, called glycoconjugates

role:
form cell coat outside cell membrane caled glycocalax, which is involved in celle-to-cell adherence, identification and protection

antigens on blood cells are usually glycoprotiens

39
Q

polysaccharides

A

2 classes:
-easily broken down and used for energy storage (glycogen)
alpha linkages are for sugars that can be metabolized

-3d arrangement used for structural polysaccharides
beta linkages occurs in stuctural molecules (cellulose)
few organisms poses the enzymes to breka down b linkage

40
Q

HDL LDL

A

higher percentage of lipids, lower density (LDL) and higher percentage of proteins, higher density (HDL)

bio 2 (15 decks)

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