Machiavelli Flashcards
Cicero
an Ancient Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher. He was a significant influence on Machiavelli, who was critical of him but still took a lot from him
composite principality
a principality that is either newly created or annexed from another power
these principalities can differ in their culture, language, and attitudes in relation to the prince, since he is an unfamiliar ruler
these principalities pose the most difficulties
Fortuna
Machiavelli’s Fortuna is a major hindrance to political order and a considerable danger to the safety and security of a state. Fortuna is a hostile and unyielding source of human suffering, misfortune, and calamity
glory
in the Prince, glory is expansionist sense, subjugating neighbours as preemptive to defence to liberty. For the prince themselves, it’s success, power and legacy
hereditary principality
a principality ruled by a prince whose family has controlled the principality for several generations
hereditary principalities, according to Machiavelli, are generally easy to rule and maintain
mercenary troops
troops that are paid to perform a service for the prince
because they have no loyalty to the prince, and money is their only inducement to fight, they are unreliable as a means of defense. They will be unwilling to die in battle and therefore will not fight vigorously
third type of freedom
have to be free from B (intervention) to do C, but in order to do B you have to do A (be involved in public life, politics etc)
principality / princedom
a localised territory or region ruled by a prince, from which the term is derived
a prince may rule more than one principality. All principalities can be grouped under the general category of “state.” A principality is ruled autocratically and is therefore distinguished from a republic, the only other type of state
prowess
the ability to conquer and govern
Machiavelli uses this term as the opposite of “fortune”
republic
a state not ruled by a monarch or prince but headed by elected officials accountable to a larger citizenry
republicanism
Machiavelli’s views on how a polity can best be sustained has close ties with traditional republican arguments (Skinner)
i.e. the citizen-body should possess the quality of virtù in the highest degree
republican / neo-Roman liberty
republican liberty is the absence of any structural dependence on arbitrary power or domination
virtù
four distinct ways that virtù fits into Machiavelli’s political thought:
- virtù as princely qualities
- virtù as good citizen qualities
- virtù as the countervailing for to Fortuna
- virtù as the rejection of traditional moral values
what are some key influences on Machiavelli?
the Florentine context
the Romans
- Livy
- Cicero
Christianity
the Renaissance Humanism movement
when were the Medici expelled from Florence?
1494
between which years was Florence a republic led by Piero Soderini and in which Machiavelli served?
1498 - 1512
when did the Medici family return and Machiavelli exiled?
1512
who was Titus Livius (Livy) and how did he influence Machiavelli?
Livy was a Roman historian
Livy’s work, specifically his monumental history of Rome “Ab Urbe Condita”, played a substantial role in shaping Machiavelli’s political and historical thinking
Livy’s writings on the Roman Republic had profound impact on Machiavelli’s republican ideals
- Machiavelli believed that the Roman Republic represented a model of civic virtue, political stability, and balance of power that contemporary Italian city-states should aspire to emulate
who was Cicero and how did he influence Machiavelli?
Cicero was an ancient Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher
he was renowned for his skills in rhetoric and oratory. Both Cicero and Machiavelli recognised the importance of effective speech and persuasion in politics
however, while Cicero emphasised the use of eloquence and moral principles in oratory, Machiavelli was more concerned with the practicality of achieving political goals through persuasive communication
Machiavelli was critical of him but takes a lot from him
- i.e. lion & fox analogy ; half-beast-half-man analogy
- things are only beneficial if they are useful
- things are only useful if they are honourable
what were Machiavelli’s views on the institutionalised Christian Church as he knew it?
Machiavelli was no friend of the institutionalised Christian Church as he knew it
- Discourses makes clear that conventional Christianity saps from human beings the vigour required for active civil life
- The Prince speaks with equal parts disdain & admiration about the contemporary condition of the Church and its Pope
- he admitted religion was critical in fostering & maintaining stability
didn’t think the fault lies with Christianity itself but instead with bad interpreters & educators
- “men of cowardice have taught Christianity as a religion of ‘idleness,’ instead of a call to virtue” (Discourses. II.2)
- he believed the teaching of Christianity has lead the world to become “weak” and “effeminate” (Discourses.II.2)
how did Christianity impact Italy during Machiavelli’s time?
he believed that the decadence of the Church of Rome had such a harmful influence on balance that it prevented the unification of Italy
the Catholic Church & the Christian religion as practised in his time were for Machiavelli major sources, perhaps the major sources, of political corruption and weakness in Italy (Hankins, 2019)
how does Machiavelli believe religion, especially Christianity, threaten liberty?
Machiavelli has broader sense of the power of religion - especially Christianity - to threaten our liberty (Skinner, 2002)
- hope of going to heaven & fear of God’s wrath means true Christians don’t care for worldly glory or welfare of community in the present life
- corrupting influence on civic life
- to preserve our liberty, we need above all to possess virtù; but to possess virtù is to be willing to place the salvation of our community above all personal considerations, whereas Christianity instructs us to treat our personal salvation as more important than anything else
Given the threat that Christianity poses, what did Machiavelli suggest to ensure more stability?
Machiavelli suggests a sort of civic religion - more suitable for a city endowed with virtú
he also advocated for separation of politics from religious considerations
- believed religion should have a role in providing stability & moral order in society but that it should not dictate political decisions
- this was a departure from the mediaeval notion of the divine right of kings, and the close intertwining of religion and politics
what is Renaissance Humanism?
a worldview centred on the nature & importance of humanity over religion
remarkable for extending their studies well beyond the narrow confines of the theology that had dominated Medieval scholarship
what is the gap between the humanists and Machiavelli?
the gap between the humanists & Machiavelli is a gap between ancients and moderns: a gap between two visions of a good state, and between two ways of using the past (Hankins, 2019)
- the humanists admired the Romans because at their best they were noble and godlike
- Machiavelli admired them because they were powerful & dominated other peoples for a thousand years
what are the four distinct ways that virtù fits into Machiavelli’s political thought?
virtù as princely qualities
virtù as good citizen qualities
virtù as the countervailing force to Fortuna
virtù as the rejection of traditional moral values
are Machiavelli’s ‘virtù’ and modern day ‘virtue’ interchangeable?
no
there is no equivalence between the conventional virtues and Machiavellian virtù
his virtù differs from that of the English translation ‘virtue’ which usually conveys the conventional connotation of moral goodness
instead, he employs virtù to refer to a combination of skills, qualities, and attributes that are “indispensable in the first place if you wish to maintain your Princely state” as well as being “crucial to the yet higher end of achieving princely glory” (Skinner, 2002)
what is virtù as princely qualities?
primarily concerned with the qualities necessary for a Prince to maintain power and attain princely glory, both of which are elements that he uses as markers of power
“indispensable in the first place if you wish to maintain your Princely state” as well as being “crucial to the yet higher end of achieving princely glory” (Skinner, 2002)
qualities include but are not limited to: greatness, courage, wisdom and strength
importance of a flexible disposition that can adapt as fortune and circumstances dictate
- uses half-man-half-beast analogy in combination with the lion and the fox analogy to exemplify his ideal princely virtù
does Machiavelli think a fixed disposition is useful for a prince?
no, he places importance on a flexible disposition that can adapt as fortune & circumstances dictate
Machiavelli recommends a tool kit full of modi, some traditionally associated with good government and others with tyranny
why does Machiavelli promote a flexible disposition & a toolkit full of modi?
different circumstances require different modis (Hankins, 2019)
- Camillus’ story is a “true example of how much more a humane act full of charity is sometimes able to do in the spirits of men than a ferocious and violent act.” The key word is “sometimes,” signalling that for Machiavelli, humanity is just another tactic. Like the liberality of Fabricius and the chastity of Scipio, it was successful only because of the circumstances
- in the next chapter, Machiavelli goes on to explain why Hannibal, “using modes contrary to these,” that is, “cruelty, robbery, violence, and every type of faithlessness,” had as much success in Italy attracting the loyalty of allies as Scipio with all his virtues had in Spain
what is the half-man-half-beast analogy? what is its significance?
because of the faults & weaknesses of human nature, “manliness will never be enough. The ancients understood statecraft much better when they figured the prince as a centaur, half man and half beast” (Skinner, 2002)
necessary for a Prince to know how to use both natures as one without the other has no stability (Prince. XVIII)
offers successes of Achilles & other old princes who were brought up & trained by Chiron the Centaur as examples to support this point
cite this quote: “manliness will never be enough. The ancients understood statecraft much better when they figured the prince as a centaur, half man and half beast”.
Skinner, 2002
cite this argument: necessary for a Prince to know how to use both natures as one without the other has no stability.
the Prince. Chapter 18
what is the fox and lion analogy? what is its significance?
the beastly side of the prince should “choose both the fox and the lion…a fox to discern the toils, and a lion to keep off the wolves” (Prince.XVIII)
e.g. Severus
- had all the “fierceness of the lion and all the craft of the fox” and thus was both feared & respected by the people & yet not hated by the army & so was able to maintain power over a great empire (Prince.XIX)
cite this quote: the beastly side of the prince should “choose both the fox and the lion…a fox to discern the toils, and a lion to keep off the wolves”.
the Prince. Chapter 18
what is the significance of Severus in showing virtù as princely qualities?
Severus had all the “fierceness of the lion and all the craft of the fox” and thus was both feared and respected by the people and yet not hated by the army and so was able to maintain power over a great empire (Prince.XIX)
cite this quote: [Severus]
had all the “fierceness of the lion and all the craft of the fox”.
the Prince. Chapter 19
what is virtù as good citizen qualities?
citizen virtù includes three principal elements (Skinner, 2002):
- prudence in matters of war and peace, being able to discern the best course of action and carry them out effectively
- display courage in defending their liberty, which is necessary to resist falling into servitude for a foreign power
- remain ‘well-ordered’ in their disposition of their civic affairs, ensuring that the government’s business is conducted in an orderly and well-tempered style
virtù goes beyond just applying to the Prince, it also involves citizens possessing certain qualities as well
Discourses on Livy present a more nuanced and complex view of virtù which argues it is not simply a matter of individual skill and ability, but is also dependent on the political and social context in which it is exercised and hence the citizenry
a virtuous republic is one in which the citizens have certain attributes that enable them to uphold the liberty and greatness of their state
what is a virtuous republic?
one in which the citizens have certain attributes that enable them to uphold the liberty and greatness of their state
what are the three principal elements included in citizen virtù? (Skinner)
- prudence in matters of war and peace, being able to discern the best course of action and carry them out effectively
- display courage in defending their liberty, which is necessary to resist falling into servitude for a foreign power
- remain ‘well-ordered’ in their disposition of their civic affairs, ensuring that the government’s business is conducted in an orderly and well-tempered style
what does Machiavelli think of military service?
under a republic, all citizens should be involved in military service, leading to a proliferation of heroes & a general diffusion of gratitude (Discourses.I)
does Machiavelli support the use of mercenaries & auxiliaries?
no
“mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous…there is not inducement to keep them on the field apart from the little they are paid; and this is not enough to make them want to die for you” (Prince.XII)
if we consider what was the start of the downfall of the Roman empire, it will be found that it was simply when the Goths started to be hired as mercenaries” (Prince.XIII)
what is the role of law and order in relation to virtù?
emphasis placed on law & order to enshrine virtù in civil life due to the flaws in human nature that inevitably lead people to corrupted & egoistical ways
“if evil and self-interest citizens are to act with virtù and serve the common good, they will have to be forced to do so by the coercive powers of the law” (Skinner, 2002)
the force of law could forge a community of unsurpassed virtù out of a tense equilibrium between two corrupt and self-interested groups
cite the quote: “if evil and self-interest citizens are to act with virtù and serve the common good, they will have to be forced to do so by the coercive powers of the law”
Skinner, 2002
how is virtù the countervailing force to Fortuna?
virtù & the effective exercise of power linked through the inclusion & involvement of Fortuna
unlike other scholars who view fortune as a largely benign force, Machiavelli’s Fortuna is a major hindrance to political order & a considerable danger to the safety & security of a state
possible to divert the worst of these consequences through virtù & wisdom being widespread in a state so that it can be prepared for the unexpected
which chapter of the Prince does Machiavelli talk about Fortuna and virtù?
Chapter 25
how much of a role does Machiavelli think fortune plays? why does this matter?
“it is probably true that fortune is the arbiter of half the things we do, leaving the other half or so controlled by ourselves” (Prince.XXV)
“the less a man has relied on fortune, the stronger he has made his position” (Prince.VI)
what is the river analogy of Fortuna?
Fortuna resembles a destructive river which, when angry, destroys nature to such an extent that no one can escape it
“she shows her power where virtù and wisdom do not prepare to resist her, and directs her fury where she knows that no dykes or embankments are ready to hold her” (Prince.XXV)
possible to divert the worst of these consequences through virtù & wisdom being widespread in a state so that it can be prepared for the unexpected
cite this quote about Fortuna: “she shows her power where virtù and wisdom do not prepare to resist her, and directs her fury where she knows that no dykes or embankments are ready to hold her”
the Prince. Chapter 25
what two things does Machiavelli liken Fortuna to?
Fortuna resembles a destructive river which, when angry, destroys nature to such an extent that no one can escape it
Fortuna is a women
- for Fortuna is a woman if she is to be submissive must be beaten and coerced” (Prince.XXV)
cite this quote: “it is better to be impetuous than circumspect. For Fortuna is a woman if she is to be submissive must be beaten and coerced”
the Prince. Chapter 25
which countries are used to show the effects of Fortuna with and without virtù?
Italy used as an example of a country that suffered from these changes as a result of being “without embankment or barrier”. (Prince.XXV)
compared to Germany, France and Spain who were prepared with sufficient skills and thus were not “wrought with the changes” he witnessed in his time. (Prince.XXV)
what is the linguistic link between virtù and vir?
vir = man in latin
‘manliness’ of virtù counteracts ‘femininity’ of Fortuna
how is virtù the rejection of traditional moral values?
one of the most significant critiques of Machiavelli’s account of virtù stems from concern towards his attitude towards conventional moral & religious standards of human conduct
according to Machiavelli, a virtuous prince is one who is able to achieve & maintain power, rather than one who adheres to traditional moral values (closer to Aristotelian thinking)
his counsel to leaders, which often involves avoiding values such as justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people, and instead relying on tactics of cruelty, fear and deception, has been criticised for condoning immoral or, at least, amoral behaviour
“a man who wants to act virtuously in every way necessarily comes to grief…If a prince wants to maintain his rule he must learn how not to be virtuous, and to make us of this or not according to need” (Prince.XV)
cite this quote: “a man who wants to act virtuously in every way necessarily comes to grief…If a prince wants to maintain his rule he must learn how not to be virtuous, and to make us of this or not according to need”
the Prince. Chapter 15
why is Machiavelli sometimes accused of being amoral?
his counsel to leaders, which often involves avoiding values such as justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people, and instead relying on tactics of cruelty, fear and deception, has been criticised for condoning immoral or, at least, amoral behaviour
is Machiavelli’s account of virtù amoral?
not purely amoral
the ruler’s commission of acts deemed vicious by convention is a ‘last best’ option and a prince ought to do good where he can, but must be prepared to commit evil if he must
guided by necessity rather than justice
“every Prince should desire to be accounted merciful and not cruel. Nevertheless, he should be on his guard against the abuse of this quality of mercy” (Prince.XVII)
allows cruelties if they are “done once for all under the necessity of self-preservation and are not afterwards persisted in” but does not permit long-term cruelties that increase with time (Prince.XVII)
which Chapter in the Prince speaks of the limitations of the princes cruelty showing that he is not amoral?
Chapter 17
what was Machiavelli’s objection to conventional Christianity?
according to the Discourses, conventional Christianity weakens individuals, depriving them of the necessary strength for active participation in civil life
he believed the teaching of Christianity has lead the world to become “weak” and “effeminate” (Discourses.II)
Machiavelli expresses both contempt & admiration of the state of the Church and its Pope during his own time (Discourses.I.XII)
what did Machiavelli dislike and admire about the state of the Church and its Pope in his own time?
he admitted religion was critical in fostering & maintaining stability
he believed that the decadence of the Church of Rome had such a harmful influence on balance that it prevented the unification of Italy
given his dislike of conventional Christianity, what did he prefer?
he preferred the pagan civil religions of ancient societies such as Rome, which he regarded to be more suitable for a city endowed with virtù
is there any evidence in Machiavelli’s writings that he was less anti-Christian than first thought?
Grazia demonstrates how central biblical themes run throughout Machiavelli’s writings, finding there a coherent conception of a divinely-centred & ordered cosmos in which other forces (“the heavens”, “fortune”, and the like) are subsumed under a divine will and plan
what type of constitution did Machiavelli think best and why?
supported the creation of republics over princedoms
- “governments by people are better than governments by princes” (Discourses. I)
republic better because of tension between nobility & plebs
prince has some conception of the common good but the idea of it is not as clear as it will be in the clashing Republic
a mixed regime designed to balance the people against the nobles produces virtuous citizens (Hankins, 2019)
which constitution is more stable: republic or princedom?
republic is more stable
even though have tense equilibrium between nobility and plebs, more likely to find common good
princes have less stable governments as there are no counterbalances to prince’s ideas
why is it more difficult for Princedoms to reach the common good than it is for republics?
prince has some conception of the common good but the idea of it is not as clear as it will be in the clashing Republic
- difficult to achieve as Princes are self-interested & also hard to get to the common good even if he’s trying
- princes have less stable government as no counterbalance to Prince’s ideas
what example does Machiavelli give as the best example of a mixed regime?
the best historical example of such a regime was what modern historians refer to as the “middle republic” of Rome
perfection was attained thanks to the tumulti or political agitation of its virtuous plebs, who insisted on a place in government commensurate with their military contributions to the state
what is the importance of the conflict between nobility and plebs?
Machiavelli placed all his faith in a mixed constitution with a bicameral legislature (Skinner)
“in every polity there will be two opposed outlooks, that of the people and that of the nobility”, and that each of these groups will at all times seek to promote its own advantage unless restrained
“all the laws made in favour of liberty resulted from the discord between them” ; community of unsurpassed virtue forged out of tense equilibrium
“those who condemn the quarrels between the nobles and the plebs, seem to be cavailing at the very things that were the primary cause of Rome’s retaining her freedom…All legislation favourable to liberty is brought about by the clash between them” (Discourses. I.4)
what did Machiavelli think was the primary cause of Rome retaining her freedom? (Discourses. I)
the quarrel between the nobles & the plebs
“all legislation favourable to liberty is brought about by the clash between them” (Discourses. I)
cite this quote: “those who condemn the quarrels between the nobles and the plebs, seem to be cavailing at the very things that were the primary cause of Rome’s retaining her freedom…All legislation favourable to liberty is brought about by the clash between them”
Discourses. I. 4
how is Christianity a corrupting influence on civil life and virtù?
hope of going to heaven & fear of God’s wrath means true Christians don’t care for worldly glory or welfare of community in the present life
to preserve our liberty, we need above all to possess virtù; but to possess virtù is to be willing to place the salvation of our community above all personal considerations, whereas Christianity instructs us to treat our personal salvation as more important than anything else
how does Machiavelli prevent corruption?
laws
- “they who lay the foundations of a State and furnish it with laws must … assume that all men are bad” (Discourses. I.3)
religion
- religion is a critical element in fostering and maintaining the stability of a state (Discourses.I.12)
how does religion prevent corruption?
religion is a critical element in fostering and maintaining the stability of a state (Discourses.I.12)
of all the modi e ordini that discipline a people in virtue, the most important are its religious customs (Hankins, 2019)
Machiavelli admires the kings of France & Spain for subjecting the church establishments in their kingdoms to their will, contrasting them favourably with the unruly prelates of Italy (Hankins, 2019)
what is Machiavelli’s conception of liberty? is there only one?
largely a theorist of republican liberty
- ‘father of republican liberty’, especially prevalent in Discourses
however, republican liberty argument can be overstated as clearly interested in other freedoms as shown in the Prince
third type of liberty: have to be free from B (intervention) to do C, but in order to do B you have to do A (be involved in public life, politics etc)
what regime type is the most appropriate for attaining republican freedom?
only in a republic may true liberty be attained
a well-ordered state was one strong enough to protect its citizens from predatory foreigners & domination by the more powerful among their fellow citizens. Both goals were best achieved by a dynamic balance of forces in a republic (Hankins, 2019)
why can true freedom not be found in princedoms? which country does he use to demonstrate this?
liberty is NOT the same as security
applies this principle to France
the law-abiding character of the French regime ensures security, but that security, while desirable, ought never to be confused with liberty. This is the limit of monarchic rule: even the best kingdom can do no better than to guarantee to its people tranquil and orderly government
does Machiavelli think liberty and security are interchangeable terms?
no, the vast majority of people confuse liberty with security, imagining that the former is identical to the latter: “But all the others, who are infinite, desire liberty in order to live securely (vivere sicuro)” (Discourses)
e.g. the law-abiding character of the French regime ensures security, but that security, while desirable, ought never to be confused with liberty
can Machiavelli be categorised as a republican thinker?
the “neo-Roman” thinkers (Pettit, Skinner & Viroli) put Machiavelli at centre of their principle of “freedom as non-domination”
to ensure liberty and promote greatness, the wisest course of action will always be to maintain an elective and self-governing form of republican government (Skinner, 2002)
Machiavelli’s views on how a polity can best be sustained has close ties with traditional republican arguments: (Skinner)
- citizen-body should possess the quality of virtù in the highest degree
- citizens must be prudent in all matters of war and peace, knowing how to judge the best courses of action and follow them out
- must be courageous in defence of their liberty
- must remain ‘well-ordered’ in the disposition of their civic affairs
can Machiavelli’s republicanism be seen in the Prince?
not as much as in the Discourses
the Prince is often seen as more authoritarian in nature
- provides advice to rulers, especially monarchs, on how to acquire and maintain power
- often involves the use of ruthless and pragmatic tactics, which may be contrary to republican values
ends justify the means
- can be seen as a departure from republican principles that often emphasise the importance of moral & ethical conduct in politics
can Machiavelli’s republicanism be seen in the Discourses?
contains more explicitly republican themes
- discusses virtues of a republic, civic engagement & the importance of citizens participating in the defence of their state
Roman Republic as an ideal form of government
- praises the Roman Republics emphasis on the republican values of virtue, honour & civic duty
balancing popular power
- while advocating republicanism, Machiavelli also recognises the challenges of balancing the power of the people with the need for stable government
- supports mechanisms like a mixed government to achieve this balance
which one of his works, the Prince or Discourses, is more republican in nature?
Discourses
what does Machiavelli mean by glory?
in the Prince, glory is expansionist sense, subjugating neighbours as preemptive to defence to liberty
for the prince themselves, it’s success and legacy
his primary concern in Discourses is with the distinctively republican ideal of civic glory and grandezza
how are Machiavelli’s admiration of the Romans and his emphasis on glory linked?
unlike the humanists admired the Romans because at their best they were noble & godlike, Machiavelli admired them because they were powerful & dominated other peoples for a thousand years
- reflected a successful interpretation of his expansionist sense of glory
what was the difference purpose of Discourses & the Prince?
the Prince written to establish a unified state; the republic in the Discourses will maintain that stable & unified state
is there any evidence that Machiavelli wrote the Prince as satire?
the fact that Machiavelli later wrote biting popular stage comedies is cited as evidence in support of his strong satirical bent
Deitz (1986) asserts that Machiavelli’s agenda was driven by a desire to “trap” the prince by offering carefully crafted advice (such as arming the people) designed to undo the ruler if taken seriously & followed
the Prince focuses on autocratic, monarchical regimes but the Discourses focuses on republics and their relative strengths
Rousseau held that the real lesson of The Prince is to teach the people the truth about how princes behave & thus to expose, rather than celebrate, the immorality at the core of one-man rule
how can Machiavelli’s two works be reconciled when, on the surface, they seem to argue for different things?
job application to the Medici
- writes the Prince because he wants a job / regain his status in the Florentine political sphere
satire / irony theory
- if you really wanted to give advice to Princes you wouldn’t publish it in writing
how successful were Machiavelli’s predictions on salient issues such as Christianity & Princes?
Machiavelli was a rather poor prophet and on salient issues predicted the exact opposite of what turned out to be the case (Hankins, 2019)
- e.g. he condemned Christianity as a source of military weakness at the very moment when it was transforming itself into an ideology of empire & European world dominance
- e.g. he wrote in The Prince that subjects of ecclesiastical princes can never get rid of their rulers; three decades later a third of Europe had rid itself of ecclesiastical princes
how does Machiavelli differ from the more ancient Plato & Aristotle?
no philosophers
- Machiavelli’s political science has no room for philosophers, whom he considers oziosi, armchair emperors, and impractical, corrupting influences (Hankins, 2019)
avoided Aristotle’s “golden mean”
- the Aristotelian mean, the “golden mean” of moralists, which Machiavelli calls the via del mezzo, the middle course, is one of his bugbears (Hankins, 2019)
- the middle course, according to Machiavelli, is almost always the wrong one
- circumstances were different, so different modes were required - leaders who became fixed in their modes would fail (Hankins, 2019)
