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plato to rousseau > Aristotle > Flashcards

Aristotle Flashcards

1
Q

aristocracy

A

‘rule of the best’ government considered superior to oligarchy because it values everyone’s interests

aristocracy confers benefits on the basis of merit, with the result that those who deserve to govern to in fact govern

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2
Q

citizen

A

“someone who is eligible to participate in the deliberative or judicial office in a city-state” (III.I.1275b)

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3
Q

city-state

A

“a multitude of citizens, adequate for life’s self-sufficiency” (III.I.1275b)

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4
Q

constitution

A

a way of organising the offices of the city-state

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5
Q

corrective justice (diorthōtikon)

A

concerns restoring a fair balance in interpersonal relations where it has been lost

if a member of a community has been unfairly benefitted or burdened with more or less than is deserved in the way of social distributions, then corrective justice can be required

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6
Q

democracy

A

‘rule of the people’ government in which the poor masses have control and use it to serve their own ends

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7
Q

distributive justice (nemētikon)

A

individuals should receive benefits and burdens in proportion to their contributions to society, merits or desert

“All agree that the just in distribution has to be in accordance with some standard of merit or worth, they do not, however, all pick the same standard: supporters of democracy choose freedom, oligarchies choose wealth or good birth, and supporters of aristocracy choose virtue” (NE.V.III.1131a)

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8
Q

just constitution

A

a constitution in which the rulers exercise power in the best interests of the people. They are geared toward bringing about well-being for all their respective citizens.

“those constitutions that look to the common benefit turn out, according to what is unqualifiedly just, to be correct” (III.1279a)

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9
Q

kingship

A

an idealised form of monarchic government in which the king is an exceptional individual who governs with everyone’s best interests in mind

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10
Q

natural justice

A

concerns lawfulness and the common good of the political community (NE.V.I)

“the just is therefore the lawful and the equal, and the unjust is the unlawful and unequal” (NE.V.I.1129a)

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11
Q

oligarchy

A

‘rule of the few’ government controlled by a minority consisting of the wealthy

bad form of government as the ruling faction governs solely in its own interests

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12
Q

tyranny

A

the rule of an individual solely in his own benefit

this is the worst type of government

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13
Q

unjust constitution

A

a constitution in which the rulers serve their own interests at the expense of the people. They are geared toward the benefit of those in power.

“those constitutions which look only to the benefit of the rulers are mistaken and are deviations from the correct constitutions” (III.1279a)

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14
Q

universal justice

A

concerns lawfulness and the common good of the political community (NE. Aristotle)

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15
Q

particular justice

A

consists of distributive and corrective justice

general agreement that justice involves treating equal persons equally and treating unequal persons unequally, but there is contention over the standard by which individuals are deemed to be equally meritorious or deserving

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16
Q

politeia

A

used in two different ways: first, it translates quite directly as “constitution”;

second, it describes a ‘constitutional government’ which Aristotle considers one of the best forms of government combining elements of oligarchy and democracy

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17
Q

what historical context did Aristotle live in?

A

lived in turbulent time that saw both the twilight of the Greek city-state and the rise of Alexander the Great

though the city-states relied on slave labour and the disenfranchisement of women, the male citizens established one of the earliest forms of democracy

Plato’s Academy was founded in Athens in 385 BCE

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18
Q

where was Aristotle educated?

A

Plato’s Academy for 20 years

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19
Q

what were some of the influences on Aristotle?

A

Platonic influence
- well versed in Platonic philosophy, including Theory of Forms

son of doctor
- served as an important counterbalance to the idealism of Plato’s philosophy
- medical background meant more empirically oriented than Plato and focus on classification

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20
Q

what is Aristotle’s view on human nature?

A

man is by nature a political animal, more so than other animals (we have speech to communicate what is beneficial or harmful and hence what is just and unjust)

all men have the innate capacity to become a eudaimon given the appropriate nurture (the polis)

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21
Q

why does Aristotle think humans are naturally more political than other animals?

A

no other animal has speech - speech is for making clear what is beneficial or harmful, and hence what is just or unjust

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22
Q

what are the three main kinds of association?

A
  1. the household / family
    - male-female association
    - ruler-ruled association
  2. the village
  3. the polis
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23
Q

what is the household / family responsible for?

A

the fulfilment of everyday recurrent needs

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24
Q

what is the village responsible for?

A

no clear definition but something more than the fulfilment of everyday recurrent needs

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25
Q

what is the polis responsible for?

A

allowing man to fulfil his full potential

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26
Q

is city-state a natural or man-made occurence?

A

every city-state exists by nature

“a city-state is among the things that exist by nature, a human being is by nature a political animal, and anyone who is without a city-state, not by luck but by nature, is either a poor specimen or else superhuman” (Pol.I.1253a)

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27
Q

should individuals own property? why / why not?

A

individuals should own property to have a stake in the city

“that which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly any at all of the common interest; and only when he himself is concerned as an individual” (Pol.II.1261b)

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28
Q

are Aristotle’s views on property the same as Plato’s?

A

no, he admits individuals should own property so that they have a stake in the city

Plato, on the other hand, argued private property should not exist and insisted on collective ownership

29
Q

what is the end for humans?

A

flourishing and happiness, the good life

30
Q

why does the polis come prior to the human being?

A

man can only become fully human when he engages in the political association of the city

by asserting that man fails to fulfill his ultimate purpose when he is disconnected from the state, Aristotle is not simply arguing that the laws of the state should restrict man’s freedom; he is also arguing that life has no value outside the confines of state

31
Q

Does Aristotle give a clear definition of the common good?

A

no - there is a lack of clarity over what he believes the common good to be

in some passages, justice involves the advantage of all citizens
- “for happiness necessarily accompanies virtue, and a city-state must not be called happy by looking at just a part, but by looking at all the citizens” (VII.IX.1329a)

in other parts, Aristotle admits that it may allow the ostracisation of powerful citizens, even when they have not been convicted of any crimes, for the purpose of faction (III.XIII.1284b)

32
Q

what is the Ostracisation case?

A

what if there is a very virtuous person but everyone kicks them out because they are seen as a threat (e.g. Socrates example)

“for men of pre-eminent excellence there is no law - they are themselves a law…And for this reason, democratic states have instituted ostracism; equality is above all things their aim, and therefore they are ostracised and banished from the city.” (Pol.III.1284a)

as democratic citizens, two options: can either make him your ruler but lose democratic nature, or can kick him out

ostracising them is unjust in the absolute sense, but just in a political sense

“where there is an acknowledged superiority the argument in favour of ostracism is based upon a kind of political justice…It is true that under perverted forms of government, and from their special point of view, such a measure is just and expedient, but it is also clear that it is not absolutely just. In the perfect state there would be great doubts about the use of it…when used against someone who is pre-eminent in excellence”. (Pol.III.1284b)

33
Q

does Aristotle give a clear definition of virtue?

A

no, but it is broadly the aptitude for ruling ; it underpins justice

34
Q

natural slaves

A

a natural slave does not have the capacity for this virtue or practical wisdom, can’t interact in this city in the normal way or participate in the city

they exist by nature however not all slaves in Greece were natural slaves, some were captured by war etc

35
Q

why is it not surprising that Aristotle defends the institution of slavery to some extent?

A

the polis that Aristotle so admires could only exist with the heavy exploitation of slave labour, so Aristotle’s defense of the institution of slavery is not surprising

36
Q

what does Aristotle’s argument supporting slavery rest on?

A

rests on the idea of “natural slaves”, people who lack rationality and so cannot properly exercise their own freedom

beneficial for “natural slaves” to be enslaved, since their master can supply the rationality that they lack

37
Q

does slavery exist by convention or nature?

A

both

“there is a slave and slavery by convention as well as by nature…where the relation of master and slave between them is natural they are friends and have a common interest, but where it rests merely on convention and force the reverse is true” (Pol.I.1255)

some slaves are captured through war etc

38
Q

what is the problem with Aristotle’s defence of natural slavery?

A

the argument is contradictory

slaves must necessarily have some kind of rationality if they are to follow orders and respond to commands; however, Aristotle says natural slaves lack rationality

39
Q

the ‘good man’

A

the good man will be a person of firmly established virtuous character, who will have all the individual virtues, and who will therefore reliably choose good action for its own sake due to his possession of practical wisdom. (NE.VI.V.1140b)

40
Q

the ‘good citizen’

A

the good citizen depends on the constitution one lives under and the excellence of a citizen is determined in relation to how well they serve their state

41
Q

are the ‘good man’ and the ‘good citizen’ one and the same?

A

not necessarily.

in the ideal city, you can be both - being a good citizen will be the same as being a good man

in just constitutions, complete virtue will not be needed in all the citizens, since some will need only to obey and not need the virtue required for ruling so good man ≠ good citizen

“evident that it is possible to be a good citizen without having acquired the virtue expressed by a good man”. (Pol.III.1277a)

42
Q

what two questions does Aristotle ask when developing the concept of constitutions?

A
  1. why does a city-state come into being?
  2. what are the different forms of rule by which one can rule over another?
43
Q

why does a city-state come into being?

A

“the human being is by nature a political animal” (Pol.III.VI.1278b) and as such people desire to live together even when they do not require one another’s help

44
Q

how many types of basic constitution are there?

A

three, each having a just and an unjust variation

45
Q

what are the three types of just constitution?

A

kingships (government is a single person)

aristocracies (a few more than one rule but not many)

politeias (the multitude governs for the common benefit)

46
Q

what are the three types of unjust constitution?

A

tyranny (rule by one person for the benefit of the monarch)

oligarchy (rule by a rich for benefit of the rich)

democracy (rule by the poor masses for the benefit of the poor)

“for tyranny is rule by one person for the benefit of the monarchy, oligarchy is for the benefit of the rich, and democracy is for the benefit of the poor. But none is for their common profit” (Pol.III.VII.1279b)

47
Q

what is the main reason for constitutional change?

A

differing beliefs about justice and equality among factions are the main reason for changes in constitution

48
Q

do different constitutions have different conceptions of justice?

A

yes

democrats believe that freeborn people are absolute equals
- “democracy arose from those who are equal in some respect thinking themselves to be unqualifiedly equal” (V.I.1301a)

oligarchs believe that inequality in wealth implies inequality on an absolute scale
- “oligarchy arose from those who are unequal in some respect taking themselves to be wholly unequal” (V.I.1301a)

49
Q

what does Aristotle think the end goal of a city should be? what does this mean the basis of good associations and benefits?

A

The end goal of a city should be a life of good quality for its citizens

the benefits should therefore be extended to those who do the most to contribute to this end by encouraging civil excellence and virtue, regardless of their birth or wealth

neither wealth nor security are the basis of good associations

50
Q

what is the link between injustice and revolution?

A

an unjust constitution is likely to produce conflict and instability, as those who are unfairly excluded from the benefits of the political system seek to overturn it (revolt)

51
Q

why do factions arise?

A

“for faction is everywhere due to inequality, when unequals do not receive proportionately unequal things” (V.I.1301b)

52
Q

how does factionalism lead to constitutional change?

A

the wealthy and the poor are liable to form separate factions, each trying to alter the constitution to their advantage

constitutional change primarily arises from a deviation from justice leading to the establishment of inequality and factions

“polities and aristocracies are principally overthrown because of a deviation from justice within the constitution itself. For what begins the process in a polity is failing to get a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy, and in aristocracy, failing to get a good mixture of these and virtue as well” (V.VII.1307a)

53
Q

which regime is more stable; democracy or oligarchy? and why?

A

democracy is more durable than oligarchy

“for oligarchies, two sorts of factions arise, one among the oligarchs themselves and another against the people. In democracies, on the other hand, the only faction is against the oligarchs, since there is none worth mentioning among the people themselves”. (V.I.1302a)

the greater the distance between factions and the starker the difference is between their views on justice, the more likely there will be action to change the constitution

54
Q

what is instability a symptom of?

A

instability is only a symptom of injustice

55
Q

fill in the gaps:
the _______ the distance between factions and the starker the difference is between their views on justice, the _____ likely there will be action to change the constitution

A

the GREATER the distance between factions and the starker the difference is between their views on justice, the MORE likely there will be action to change the constitution

56
Q

what is the best constitution in existing circumstances? why?

A

Aristotle states that politeia is simultaneously the most practical and most realistic form of constitution in which power rests in the hands of a strong middle class. (Pol.IV)

politeia, or constitutional government, is a mixture of oligarchy and democracy that confers benefits both on the masses and on the wealthy, but it does not discriminate on the basis of merit. (Pol.IV)

in a city that consists of only rich and poor, the rich will feel contempt for the poor and the poor will feel hatred and envy for the rich

the spirit of friendship that is so essential to a healthy city is made possible only by a strong middle class that holds no grudges and is not prone to factionalism

checks and balances between the two sides stop it going off too far to one side

57
Q

what are the three ways a politeia can mix democracy and oligarchy? (Pol.IV)

A
  1. a combination of the two
  2. a mean between the two
  3. a mixture of elements taken from each
58
Q

why is a strong middle class important for maintaining stability in a politeia?

A

prevents factionalism running rife

59
Q

is a strong middle class easy to develop? is it common?

A

a strong middle class rarely develops: it is possible neither in small cities, nor in the superpowers of Athens and Sparta, which have encouraged democracy and oligarchy respectively

60
Q

explain how the type of constitution depends on the type of state.

A

where the nobility, wealth, and culture of the rich outweigh the sheer numbers of the poor, an oligarchy is desirable

where the numbers of the poor outweigh the trappings of the rich, a democracy is desirable

when the middle class outweighs both of these classes, a politeia is desirable

61
Q

what is Aristotle’s best constitution in an ideal case? why?

A

true aristocracy (rule of the virtuous)

theoretical and utopian form of government where the virtuous and wise rule for the benefit of the entire society

in this ideal constitution, individuals are selected for leadership positions based on their moral and intellectual qualities, rather than their wealth or birthright. This, he believes, would lead to the highest degree of justice and excellence

62
Q

why does the best constitution differ in ideal circumstances and existing/realistic circumstances?

A

the reason for the difference between the best constitution in ideal circumstances and existing circumstances is that Aristotle recognised the limitations of human nature and the practical challenges of implementing a true aristocracy

in most real-world situations, finding and selecting genuinely virtuous and wise rulers would be extremely difficult

63
Q

what is the idea of teleology?

A

that everything in nature exists for a specific purpose

64
Q

what is Aristotle’s teleological argument?

A

Ethics, which in many ways parallels the Politics, argues that the end goal of human existence is happiness and this happiness involves the human faculty of reason

the Politics is largely an attempt to determine what kind of political association is best suited for securing happiness for its citizens

man can only become fully human when he engages in the political association of the city

65
Q

what are Aristotle’s views on moderation?

A

Aristotle believed that an end is good only when pursued in moderation, and that evil is the result of ignorance

led him to proclaim that moderation and education are forces that ensure the stability of a constitution

he believes moderation plays in important role both within individuals and within politics / the city

66
Q

what is the “Golden Mean” in ethics?

A

moral virtue consists of finding a balance between two extremes of deficiency and excess

67
Q

how does moderation fit in with Aristotle’s individual?

A

happiness arises out of moderation and education

virtue is the mean between extremes (Ethics. Book II)

e.g. courage is the virtue that lies between the deficiency of cowardice and the excess of rashness (Ethics. Book II)

68
Q

how does moderation fit in to the city and politics?

A

politeia as the best practical regime (balance / middle ground between democracy and oligarchy)

  • oligarchy, like democracy, is most likely to thrive when it is practised in moderation (Pol. Book VI)

the importance of the middle class
- middling wealth is the best position; the wealthy become arrogant and grand, the poor become malicious and petty

  • “it is evident that in the case of the goods of fortune as well a middling possession is the best of all.” (Ethics)
  • a political community that has extremes of wealth and poverty “is a city not of free persons but of slaves and masters, the ones consumed by envy, the others by contempt” (Ethics)

plato to rousseau (5 decks)

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