Macbeth Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Summarise Macbeth

Answer

A

While returning from a battle victory, Macbeth, a powerful lord, meets three Witches who predict that he will become King of Scotland.
Macbeth tells his wife of the Witches’ predictions and she encourages him to murder the current king, Duncan, who is staying with them as a guest.
After Macduff discovers the murder, Duncan’s sons flee the country, leaving the way clear for Macbeth to become king.
Banquo, Macbeth’s best friend, becomes suspicious of what his friend has done so Macbeth has him murdered too.
Macbeth pays a second visit to the Witches and receives more predictions.
In England, Malcolm (Duncan’s elder son) and his chief supporter, Macduff, plan to invade Scotland to win back the throne. An enraged Macbeth has Macduff’s wife and children killed; Macduff swears revenge.
Lady Macbeth suffers from guilt for what she has done and eventually commits suicide.
Malcolm’s invasion is successful and Macduff kills Macbeth. Malcolm becomes the new King of Scotland and the country counts the cost of Macbeth’s short but bloody reign.

The play begins with the brief appearance of a trio of witches and then moves to a military camp, where the Scottish King Duncan hears the news that his generals, Macbeth and Banquo, have defeated two separate invading armies—one from Ireland, led by the rebel Macdonwald, and one from Norway. Following their pitched battle with these enemy forces, Macbeth and Banquo encounter the witches as they cross a moor. The witches prophesy that Macbeth will be made thane (a rank of Scottish nobility) of Cawdor and eventually King of Scotland. They also prophesy that Macbeth’s companion, Banquo, will beget a line of Scottish kings, although Banquo will never be king himself.

The witches vanish, and Macbeth and Banquo treat their prophecies skeptically until some of King Duncan’s men come to thank the two generals for their victories in battle and to tell Macbeth that he has indeed been named thane of Cawdor. The previous thane betrayed Scotland by fighting for the Norwegians and Duncan has condemned him to death. Macbeth is intrigued by the possibility that the remainder of the witches’ prophecy—that he will be crowned king—might be true, but he is uncertain what to expect. He visits with King Duncan, and they plan to dine together at Inverness, Macbeth’s castle, that night. Macbeth writes ahead to his wife, Lady Macbeth, telling her all that has happened.

Lady Macbeth suffers none of her husband’s uncertainty. She desires the kingship for him and wants him to murder Duncan in order to obtain it. When Macbeth arrives at Inverness, she overrides all of her husband’s objections and persuades him to kill the king that very night. He and Lady Macbeth plan to get Duncan’s two chamberlains drunk so they will black out; the next morning they will blame the murder on the chamberlains, who will be defenseless, as they will remember nothing. While Duncan is asleep, Macbeth stabs him, despite his doubts and a number of supernatural portents, including a vision of a bloody dagger. When Duncan’s death is discovered the next morning, Macbeth kills the chamberlains—ostensibly out of rage at their crime—and easily assumes the kingship. Duncan’s sons Malcolm and Donalbain flee to England and Ireland, respectively, fearing that whoever killed Duncan desires their demise as well.

Fearful of the witches’ prophecy that Banquo’s heirs will seize the throne, Macbeth hires a group of murderers to kill Banquo and his son Fleance. They ambush Banquo on his way to a royal feast, but they fail to kill Fleance, who escapes into the night. Macbeth becomes furious: as long as Fleance is alive, he fears that his power remains insecure. At the feast that night, Banquo’s ghost visits Macbeth. When he sees the ghost, Macbeth raves fearfully, startling his guests, who include most of the great Scottish nobility. Lady Macbeth tries to neutralize the damage, but Macbeth’s kingship incites increasing resistance from his nobles and subjects.

Frightened, Macbeth goes to visit the witches in their cavern. There, they show him a sequence of demons and spirits who present him with further prophecies: he must beware of Macduff, a Scottish nobleman who opposed Macbeth’s accession to the throne; he is incapable of being harmed by any man born of woman; and he will be safe until Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane Castle. Macbeth is relieved and feels secure, because he knows that all men are born of women and that forests cannot move. When he learns that Macduff has fled to England to join Malcolm, Macbeth orders that Macduff’s castle be seized and, most cruelly, that Lady Macduff and her children be murdered.

When news of his family’s execution reaches Macduff in England, he is stricken with grief and vows revenge. Prince Malcolm, Duncan’s son, has succeeded in raising an army in England, and Macduff joins him as he rides to Scotland to challenge Macbeth’s forces. The invasion has the support of the Scottish nobles, who are appalled and frightened by Macbeth’s tyrannical and murderous behavior. Lady Macbeth, meanwhile, becomes plagued with fits of sleepwalking in which she bemoans what she believes to be bloodstains on her hands. Before Macbeth’s opponents arrive, Macbeth receives news that she has killed herself, causing him to sink into a deep and pessimistic despair. Nevertheless, he awaits the English and fortifies Dunsinane, to which he seems to have withdrawn in order to defend himself, certain that the witches’ prophecies guarantee his invincibility. He is struck numb with fear, however, when he learns that the English army is advancing on Dunsinane shielded with boughs cut from Birnam Wood. Birnam Wood is indeed coming to Dunsinane, fulfilling half of the witches’ prophecy.

In the battle, Macbeth hews violently, but the English forces gradually overwhelm his army and castle. On the battlefield, Macbeth encounters the vengeful Macduff, who declares that he was not “of woman born” but was instead “untimely ripped” from his mother’s womb (what we now call birth by cesarean section). Though he realizes that he is doomed, Macbeth continues to fight until Macduff kills and beheads him. Malcolm, now the King of Scotland, declares his benevolent intentions for the country and invites all to see him crowned at Scone.

Question 2

Q

Analyse the whole story

Answer

A

Macbeth is a tragedy that tells the story of a soldier whose overriding ambition and thirst for power cause him to abandon his morals and bring about the near destruction of the kingdom he seeks to rule. At first, the conflict is between Macbeth and himself, as he debates whether or not he will violently seize power, and between Macbeth and his wife, as Lady Macbeth urges her husband toward a course of action he is hesitant to take.

Once Macbeth stops struggling against his ambition, the conflict shifts. It then primarily exists between Macbeth and the other characters, in particular Banquo and Macduff, who challenge his authority. Macbeth is the protagonist in the sense that he is the main focus of the narrative and that audiences frequently have access to his point of view. However, as he often acts against his own best interests, as well as the best interests of the other characters and his country, he is also the antagonist. The characters who oppose Macbeth and eventually defeat him do so in order to restore order and justice.

The play actually opens with the consequences of someone else’s ambition. In the first scene, audiences hear about the bloody conflict that resulted from the rebellion led by the Thane of Cawdor. The rebellion foreshadows the consequences of overreaching one’s role. The conflict is initiated when Macbeth encounters the witches who prophesize that he will become first the Thane of Cawdor, and then the King of Scotland. As soon as he learns that their first prophecy has come true, he is awakened to the possibility of the second also being realized. As Macbeth marvels to himself, “Two truths are told/As happy prologues to the swelling act/ Of the imperial theme” (1.3.128-130).

In a crucial turning point in the play, Macbeth is faced with a choice: to take decisive action to claim the crown as his own, or to simply wait and see what happens. Every choice he makes, and every thing that happens for the rest of the play stem from his decision here. Macbeth feels ambivalence, as he wants to be king but also knows that he owes Duncan loyalty both “as his kinsman and as his subject” (1.7.13).

The tension between duty and ambition sharpens when Lady Macbeth learns of the prophecy that her husband will become king, and immediately begins strategizing ways to bring about the fulfillment of the prophecy. Now Macbeth is torn between loyalty to Duncan and loyalty to his wife, who does not appear to feel any shame, doubt, or remorse about the dark act she is plotting. She is eager to “pour my spirits in [Macbeth’s] ear/And chastise with the valor of my tongue/All that impedes [him] from the golden round” (1.5.25-27). The audience has the sense that Lady Macbeth may have been longing for just such an opportunity where she can put her intelligence and strategic ability to good use.

Lady Macbeth successfully manipulates her husband into taking action, telling him, “when you durst do it, then you were a man” (1.7.49). This initial conflict over whether or not he can kill his king, which exists both between Macbeth and himself and between Macbeth and his wife, is resolved when Macbeth acts, murdering Duncan and then seizing power after the more obvious heirs flee in fear of being accused of the crime.

After the murder, the conflict resides primarily in the opposition between Macbeth and the individuals who mistrust his power and how he got it. Having damned himself by killing Duncan, Macbeth will stop at nothing to hold on to his power. At the start of Act 3, the audience learns that Banquo is suspicious of whether Macbeth may have achieved power through nefarious means. Perhaps because he knows that Banquo has reason to mistrust him, and certainly because he fears that Banquo’s heirs are a challenge to his lineage, Macbeth arranges to have Banquo and his son murdered.

Both Macbeth and his wife have changed: Macbeth, formerly hesitant, is now completely firm and decisive, and Lady Macbeth, formerly impatient and bloodthirsty, now thinks it would be fine to leave matters well enough alone. For example, she explicitly tells him that he “must leave this” (3.2.35), while he explains that “things bad begun make strong themselves by ill” (3.2.55). The murder of Banquo furthers heightens the conflict. Macbeth is clearly a tyrannical figure, and the plot will revolve around him being removed from power and punished for his crimes.

The expository speech between Lennox and the lord in Act 3, Scene 6 clarifies that political loyalties have shifted and that Macbeth is now viewed as a usurper who needs to be deposed. We see that Macbeth’s rule is disastrous for Scotland as a whole, as Lennox laments the fate of “this our suffering country/Under a hand accursed” (3.6.49-50). Macbeth’s horrific order of the murder of Macduff’s wife and children creates a more specific personal conflict within the broader one; Macduff now has a case for personal vengeance against Macbeth. Spurred by his rage and grief, Macduff vows to “Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myself/Within my sword’s length set him” (4.3.234-235). Macduff’s declaration of personal enmity against Macbeth sets the stage for the final conflict between the two, and for Macbeth’s defeat. A positive outcome becomes impossible for Macbeth as he gradually loses his authority, power, and eventually his wife.

Ultimately, Macbeth’s overreliance on his belief he is fated to be king leads to his downfall, since he arrogantly misinterprets the witches’ prophecies, believing that they promise him glory while in fact, the prophecies predict how he will be defeated. While the audience has long understood that the witches are untrustworthy and up to no good, Macbeth only realizes this fact when facing his own death. He laments that the witches “palter with us in a double sense/That keep the word of promise to our ear/And break it to our hope” (5.8.20-22). Although he blames the witches, his own ambition is equally to blame. He heard what he wanted to hear and believed what he wanted to believe from the first moment he met the witches.

Yet Macbeth is not entirely unsympathetic, as he had several powerful forces inciting him to action, and for a long time truly believed he was following his fate. His death resolves the political and social conflict, since the legitimate king can now return to power and restore order to Scotland. The play’s brief falling action allows for the promise of a brighter future under Malcolm’s new reign.

Question 3

Q

What happens in Act 1, Scene 1-4

Answer

A

Summary: Act 1, scene 1

Thunder and lightning crash above a Scottish moor. Three haggard old women, the witches, appear out of the storm. In eerie, chanting tones, they make plans to meet again upon the heath, after the battle, to confront Macbeth. As quickly as they arrive, they disappear.

Read a translation of Act 1, scene 1 →

Summary: Act 1, scene 2

At a military camp near his palace at Forres, King Duncan of Scotland asks a wounded captain for news about the Scots’ battle with the Irish invaders, who are led by the rebel Macdonwald. The captain, who was wounded helping Duncan’s son Malcolm escape capture by the Irish, replies that the Scottish generals Macbeth and Banquofought with great courage and violence. The captain then describes for Duncan how Macbeth slew the traitorous Macdonwald. As the captain is carried off to have his wounds attended to, the thane of Ross, a Scottish nobleman, enters and tells the king that the traitorous thane of Cawdor has been defeated and the army of Norway repelled. Duncan decrees that the thane of Cawdor be put to death and that Macbeth, the hero of the victorious army, be given Cawdor’s title. Ross leaves to deliver the news to Macbeth.

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Summary: Act 1, scene 3

On the heath near the battlefield, thunder rolls and the three witches appear. One says that she has just come from “[k]illing swine” and another describes the revenge she has planned upon a sailor whose wife refused to share her chestnuts. Suddenly a drum beats, and the third witch cries that Macbeth is coming. Macbeth and Banquo, on their way to the king’s court at Forres, come upon the witches and shrink in horror at the sight of the old women. Banquo asks whether they are mortal, noting that they don’t seem to be “inhabitants o’ th’ earth” (1.3.39). He also wonders whether they are really women, since they seem to have beards like men. The witches hail Macbeth as thane of Glamis (his original title) and as thane of Cawdor. Macbeth is baffled by this second title, as he has not yet heard of King Duncan’s decision. The witches also declare that Macbeth will be king one day. Stunned and intrigued, Macbeth presses the witches for more information, but they have turned their attention to Banquo, speaking in yet more riddles. They call Banquo “lesser than Macbeth, and greater,” and “not so happy, yet much happier”; then they tell him that he will never be king but that his children will sit upon the throne (1.3.63–65). Macbeth implores the witches to explain what they meant by calling him thane of Cawdor, but they vanish into thin air.

In disbelief, Macbeth and Banquo discuss the strange encounter. Macbeth fixates on the details of the prophecy. “Your children shall be kings,” he says to his friend, to which Banquo responds: “You shall be king” (1.3.84). Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of Ross and Angus, who have come to convey them to the king. Ross tells Macbeth that the king has made him thane of Cawdor, as the former thane is to be executed for treason. Macbeth, amazed that the witches’ prophecy has come true, asks Banquo if he hopes his children will be kings. Banquo replies that devils often tell half-truths in order to “win us to our harm” (1.3.121). Macbeth ignores his companions and speaks to himself, ruminating upon the possibility that he might one day be king. He wonders whether the reign will simply fall to him or whether he will have to perform a dark deed in order to gain the crown. At last he shakes himself from his reverie and the group departs for Forres. As they leave, Macbeth whispers to Banquo that, at a later time, he would like to speak to him privately about what has transpired.

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Summary: Act 1, scene 4

At the king’s palace, Duncan hears reports of Cawdor’s execution from his son Malcolm, who says that Cawdor died nobly, confessing freely and repenting of his crimes. Macbeth and Banquo enter with Ross and Angus. Duncan thanks the two generals profusely for their heroism in the battle, and they profess their loyalty and gratitude toward Duncan. Duncan announces his intention to name Malcolm the heir to his throne. Macbeth declares his joy but notes to himself that Malcolm now stands between him and the crown. Plans are made for Duncan to dine at Macbeth’s castle that evening, and Macbeth goes on ahead of the royal party to inform his wife of the king’s impending arrival.

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Analysis: Act 1, scenes 1–4

These scenes establish the play’s dramatic premise—the witches’ awakening of Macbeth’s ambition—and present the main characters and their relationships. At the same time, the first three scenes establish a dark mood that permeates the entire play. The stage directions indicate that the play begins with a storm, and malignant supernatural forces immediately appear in the form of the three witches. From there, the action quickly shifts to a battlefield that is dominated by a sense of the grisliness and cruelty of war. In his description of Macbeth and Banquo’s heroics, the captain dwells specifically on images of carnage: “he unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops,” he says, describing Macbeth’s slaying of Macdonwald (1.2.22). The bloody murders that fill the play are foreshadowed by the bloody victory that the Scots win over their enemies.

Read more about how the setting shapes Macbeth.

Our initial impression of Macbeth, based on the captain’s report of his valor and prowess in battle, is immediately complicated by Macbeth’s obvious fixation upon the witches’ prophecy. Macbeth is a noble and courageous warrior but his reaction to the witches’ pronouncements emphasizes his great desire for power and prestige. Macbeth immediately realizes that the fulfillment of the prophecy may require conspiracy and murder on his part. He clearly allows himself to consider taking such actions, although he is by no means resolved to do so. His reaction to the prophecy displays a fundamental confusion and inactivity: instead of resolving to act on the witches’ claims, or simply dismissing them, Macbeth talks himself into a kind of thoughtful stupor as he tries to work out the situation for himself. In the following scene, Lady Macbeth will emerge and drive the hesitant Macbeth to act; she is the will propelling his achievements. Once Lady Macbeth hears of the witches’ prophecy, Duncan’s life is doomed.

Read more about foreshadowing in Macbeth.

Macbeth contains some of Shakespeare’s most vivid female characters. Lady Macbeth and the three witches are extremely wicked, but they are also stronger and more imposing than the men around them. The sinister witches cast the mood for the entire play. Their rhyming incantations stand out eerily amid the blank verse spoken by the other characters, and their grotesque figures of speech establish a lingering aura. Whenever they appear, the stage directions deliberately link them to unease and lurking chaos in the natural world by insisting on “Thunder” or “Thunder and lightning.”

Shakespeare has the witches speak in language of contradiction. Their famous line “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” is a prominent example (1.1.10), but there are many others, such as their characterization of Banquo as “lesser than Macbeth, and greater” (1.3.63). Such speech adds to the play’s sense of moral confusion by implying that nothing is quite what it seems. Interestingly, Macbeth’s first line in the play is “So foul and fair a day I have not seen” (1.3.36). This line echoes the witches’ words and establishes a connection between them and Macbeth. It also suggests that Macbeth is the focus of the drama’s moral confusion.

Question 4

Q

What happens in Act 1, Scene 5-7

Answer

A

Summary: Act 1, scene 5

> . . . Come, you spirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,
And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full
Of direst cruelty.See Important Quotes Explained

In Inverness, Macbeth’scastle, Lady Macbeth reads to herself a letter she has received from Macbeth. The letter announces Macbeth’s promotion to the thaneship of Cawdor and details his meeting with the witches. Lady Macbeth murmurs that she knows Macbeth is ambitious, but fears he is too full of “th’ milk of human kindness” to take the steps necessary to make himself king (1.5.15). She resolves to convince her husband to do whatever is required to seize the crown. A messenger enters and informs Lady Macbeth that the king rides toward the castle, and that Macbeth is on his way as well. As she awaits her husband’s arrival, she delivers a famous speech in which she begs, “you spirits / That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, / And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full / Of direst cruelty” (1.5.38–41). She resolves to put her natural femininity aside so that she can do the bloody deeds necessary to seize the crown. Macbeth enters, and he and his wife discuss the king’s forthcoming visit. Macbeth tells his wife that Duncan plans to depart the next day, but Lady Macbeth declares that the king will never see tomorrow. She tells her husband to have patience and to leave the plan to her.

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Summary: Act 1, scene 6

Duncan, the Scottish lords, and their attendants arrive outside Macbeth’s castle. Duncan praises the castle’s pleasant environment, and he thanks Lady Macbeth, who has emerged to greet him, for her hospitality. She replies that it is her duty to be hospitable since she and her husband owe so much to their king. Duncan then asks to be taken inside to Macbeth, whom he professes to love dearly.

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Summary: Act 1, scene 7

> If it were done when ’tis done, then ’twere well
It were done quickly . . .
. . .
. . . He’s here in double trust:
First, as I am his kinsman and his subject,
Strong both against the deed; then, as his host,
Who should against his murderer shut the door,
Not bear the knife myself.See Important Quotations Explained

Inside the castle, as oboes play and servants set a table for the evening’s feast, Macbeth paces by himself, pondering his idea of assassinating Duncan. He says that the deed would be easy if he could be certain that it would not set in motion a series of terrible consequences. He declares his willingness to risk eternal damnation but realizes that even on earth, bloody actions “return / To plague th’inventor” (1.7.9–10). He then considers the reasons why he ought not to kill Duncan: Macbeth is Duncan’s kinsman, subject, and host; moreover, the king is universally admired as a virtuous ruler. Macbeth notes that these circumstances offer him nothing that he can use to motivate himself. He faces the fact that there is no reason to kill the king other than his own ambition, which he realizes is an unreliable guide.

Lady Macbeth enters and tells her husband that the king has dined and that he has been asking for Macbeth. Macbeth declares that he no longer intends to kill Duncan. Lady Macbeth, outraged, calls him a coward and questions his manhood: “When you durst do it,” she says, “then you were a man” (1.7.49). He asks her what will happen if they fail; she promises that as long as they are bold, they will be successful. Then she tells him her plan: while Duncan sleeps, she will give his chamberlains wine to make them drunk, and then she and Macbeth can slip in and murder Duncan. They will smear the blood of Duncan on the sleeping chamberlains to cast the guilt upon them. Astonished at the brilliance and daring of her plan, Macbeth tells his wife that her “undaunted mettle” makes him hope that she will only give birth to male children (1.7.73). He then agrees to proceed with the murder.

Read a translation of Act 1, scene 7 →

Analysis: Act 1, scenes 5–7

These scenes are dominated by Lady Macbeth, who is probably the most memorable character in the play. Her violent, blistering soliloquies in Act 1, scenes 5 and 7, testify to her strength of will, which completely eclipses that of her husband. She is well aware of the discrepancy between their respective resolves and understands that she will have to manipulate her husband into acting on the witches’ prophecy. Her soliloquy in Act 1, scene 5, begins the play’s exploration of gender roles, particularly of the value and nature of masculinity. In the soliloquy, she spurns her feminine characteristics, crying out “unsex me here” and wishing that the milk in her breasts would be exchanged for “gall” so that she could murder Duncan herself. These remarks manifest Lady Macbeth’s belief that manhood is defined by murder. When, in Act 1, scene 7, her husband is hesitant to murder Duncan, she goads him by questioning his manhood and by implicitly comparing his willingness to carry through on his intention of killing Duncan with his ability to carry out a sexual act (1.7.38–41). Throughout the play, whenever Macbeth shows signs of faltering, Lady Macbeth implies that he is less than a man.

Macbeth exclaims that Lady Macbeth should “[b]ring forth men-children only” because she is so bold and courageous (1.7.72). Since Macbeth succumbs to Lady Macbeth’s wishes immediately following this remark, it seems that he is complimenting her and affirming her belief that courage and brilliance are masculine traits. But the comment also suggests that Macbeth is thinking about his legacy. He sees Lady Macbeth’s boldness and masculinity as heroic and warriorlike, while Lady Macbeth invokes her supposed masculine “virtues” for dark, cruel purposes. Unlike Macbeth, she seems solely concerned with immediate power.

Question 5

Q

What happens in Act 2, Scenes 1-2

Answer

A

Summary: Act 2, scene 1

Banquoand his son Fleance walk in the torch-lit hall of Macbeth’scastle. Fleance says that it is after midnight, and his father responds that although he is tired, he wishes to stay awake because his sleep has lately inspired “cursed thoughts” (2.1.8). Macbeth enters, and Banquo is surprised to see him still up. Banquo says that the king is asleep and mentions that he had a dream about the “three weird sisters.” When Banquo suggests that the witcheshave revealed “some truth” to Macbeth, Macbeth claims that he has not thought of them at all since their encounter in the woods (2.1.19–20). He and Banquo agree to discuss the witches’ prophecies at a later time.

Banquo and Fleance leave, and suddenly, in the darkened hall, Macbeth has a vision of a dagger floating in the air before him, its handle pointing toward his hand and its tip aiming him toward Duncan. Macbeth tries to grasp the weapon and fails. He wonders whether what he sees is real or a “dagger of the mind, a false creation / Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain” (2.1.38–39). Continuing to gaze upon the dagger, he thinks he sees blood on the blade, then abruptly decides that the vision is just a manifestation of his unease over killing Duncan. The night around him seems thick with horror and witchcraft, but Macbeth stiffens and resolves to do his bloody work. A bell tolls—Lady Macbeth’s signal that the chamberlains are asleep—and Macbeth strides toward Duncan’s chamber.

Read a translation of Act 2, scene 1 →

Summary: Act 2, scene 2

> Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather
The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
Making the green one red.See Important Quotes Explained

As Macbeth leaves the hall, Lady Macbeth enters, remarking on her boldness. She imagines that Macbeth is killing the king even as she speaks. Hearing Macbeth cry out, she worries that the chamberlains have awakened. She says that she cannot understand how Macbeth could fail—she had prepared the daggers for the chamberlains herself. She asserts that she would have killed the king herself then and there, “[h]ad he not resembled / [her] father as he slept” (2.2.12–13). Macbeth emerges, his hands covered in blood, and says that the deed is done. Badly shaken, he remarks that he heard the chamberlains awake and say their prayers before going back to sleep. When they said “amen,” he tried to say it with them but found that the word stuck in his throat. He adds that as he killed the king, he thought he heard a voice cry out: “Sleep no more, / Macbeth does murder sleep” (2.2.33–34).

Lady Macbeth at first tries to steady her husband, but she becomes angry when she notices that he has forgotten to leave the daggers with the sleeping chamberlains so as to frame them for Duncan’s murder. He refuses to go back into the room, so she takes the daggers into the room herself, saying that she would be ashamed to be as cowardly as Macbeth. As she leaves, Macbeth hears a mysterious knocking. The portentous sound frightens him, and he asks desperately, “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand?” (2.2.58–59). As Lady Macbeth reenters the hall, the knocking comes again, and then a third time. She leads her husband back to the bedchamber, where he can wash off the blood. “A little water clears us of this deed,” she tells him. “How easy it is then!” (2.2.65–66).

Read a translation of Act 2, scene 2 →

Analysis: Act 2, scenes 1–2

Banquo’s knowledge of the witches’ prophecy makes him both a potential ally and a potential threat to Macbeth’s plotting. For now, Macbeth seems distrustful of Banquo and pretends to have hardly thought of the witches, but Macbeth’s desire to discuss the prophecies at some future time suggests that he may have some sort of conspiratorial plans in mind. The appearance of Fleance, Banquo’s son, serves as a reminder of the witches’ prediction that Banquo’s children will sit on the throne of Scotland. We realize that if Macbeth succeeds in the murder of Duncan, he will be driven to still more violence before his crown is secure, and Fleance will be in immediate and mortal danger.

Read more about how the story hinges on point of view.

Act 2 is singularly concerned with the murder of Duncan. But Shakespeare here relies on a technique that he uses throughout Macbeth to help sustain the play’s incredibly rapid tempo of development: elision. We see the scenes leading up to the murder and the scenes immediately following it, but the deed itself does not appear onstage. Duncan’s bedchamber becomes a sort of hidden sanctum into which the characters disappear and from which they emerge powerfully changed. This technique of not allowing us to see the actual murder, which persists throughout Macbeth, may have been borrowed from the classical Greek tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles. In these plays, violent acts abound but are kept offstage, made to seem more terrible by the power of suggestion. The effect on Lady Macbeth of her trip into Duncan’s bedroom is particularly striking. She claims that she would have killed Duncan herself except that he resembled her father sleeping. This is the first time Lady Macbeth shows herself to be at all vulnerable. Her comparison of Duncan to her father suggests that despite her desire for power and her harsh chastisement of Macbeth, she sees her king as an authority figure to whom she must be loyal.

Read more about allusions in Macbeth.

The murder of Lady Macduff and her young son in Act 4, scene 2, marks the moment in which Macbeth descends into utter madness, killing neither for political gain nor to silence an enemy, but simply out of a furious desire to do harm. As Malcolm and Macduff reason in Act 4, scene 3, Macbeth’s is the worst possible method of kingship. It is a political approach without moral legitimacy because it is not founded on loyalty to the state. Their conversation reflects an important theme in the play—the nature of true kingship, which is embodied by Duncan and King Edward, as opposed to the tyranny of Macbeth. In the end, a true king seems to be one motivated by love of his kingdom more than by pure self-interest. In a sense, both Malcolm and Macduff share this virtue—the love they hold for Scotland unites them in opposition to Macbeth, and grants their attempt to seize power a moral legitimacy that Macbeth’s lacked.

Read more about the difference between kingship and tyranny as a theme.

Macduff and Malcolm are allies, but Macduff also serves as a teacher to Malcolm. Malcolm believes himself to be crafty and intuitive, as his test of Macduff shows. Yet, he has a perverted idea of manhood that is in line with Macbeth’s. When Ross brings word of Lady Macduff’s murder, Malcolm tells Macduff: “Dispute it like a man” (4.3.221). Macduff answers, “I shall do so, / But I must also feel it as a man” (4.3.222–223). Macduff shows that manhood comprises more than aggression and murder; allowing oneself to be sensitive and to feel grief is also necessary. This is an important lesson for Malcolm to learn if he is to be a judicious, honest, and compassionate king. When, in Act 5, scene 11, Malcolm voices his sorrow for Siward’s son, he demonstrates that he has taken Macduff’s instruction to heart.

Question 10

Q

What happens in Act 5?

Answer

A

> Out, damned spot; out, I say. . . . Yet who would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him?See Important Quotes Explained

At night, in the king’s palace at Dunsinane, a doctor and a gentlewoman discuss Lady Macbeth’s strange habit of sleepwalking. Suddenly, Lady Macbeth enters in a trance with a candle in her hand. Bemoaning the murders of Lady Macduff and Banquo, she seems to see blood on her hands and claims that nothing will ever wash it off. She leaves, and the doctor and gentlewoman marvel at her descent into madness.

Summary: Act 5, scene 2

Outside the castle, a group of Scottish lords discusses the military situation: the English army approaches, led by Malcolm, and the Scottish army will meet them near Birnam Wood, apparently to join forces with them. The “tyrant,” as Lennox and the other lords call Macbeth, has fortified Dunsinane Castle and is making his military preparations in a mad rage.

Summary: Act 5, scene 3

Macbeth strides into the hall of Dunsinane with the doctor and his attendants, boasting proudly that he has nothing to fear from the English army or from Malcolm, since “none of woman born” can harm him (4.1.96) and since he will rule securely “[t]ill Birnam Wood remove to Dunsinane” (5.3.2). He calls his servant Seyton, who confirms that an army of ten thousand Englishmen approaches the castle. Macbeth insists upon wearing his armor, though the battle is still some time off. The doctor tells the king that Lady Macbeth is kept from rest by “thick-coming fancies,” and Macbeth orders him to cure her of her delusions (5.3.40).

Read a translation of Act 5, scene 3 →

Summary: Act 5, scene 4

In the country near Birnam Wood, Malcolm talks with the English lord Siward and his officers about Macbeth’s plan to defend the fortified castle. They decide that each soldier should cut down a bough of the forest and carry it in front of him as they march to the castle, thereby disguising their numbers.

Read a translation of Act 5, scene 4 →

Summary: Act 5, scene 5

> Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.See Important Quotes Explained

Within the castle, Macbeth blusteringly orders that banners be hung and boasts that his castle will repel the enemy. A woman’s cry is heard, and Seyton appears to tell Macbeth that the queen is dead. Shocked, Macbeth speaks numbly about the passage of time and declares famously that life is “a tale / Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing” (5.5.25–27). A messenger enters with astonishing news: the trees of Birnam Wood are advancing toward Dunsinane. Enraged and terrified, Macbeth recalls the prophecy that said he could not die till Birnam Wood moved to Dunsinane. Resignedly, he declares that he is tired of the sun and that at least he will die fighting.

Summary: Act 5, scene 6

Outside the castle, the battle commences. Malcolm orders the English soldiers to throw down their boughs and draw their swords.

Read a translation of Act 5, scene 6 →

Summary: Act 5, scene 7

On the battlefield, Macbeth strikes those around him vigorously, insolent because no man born of woman can harm him. He slays Lord Siward’s son and disappears in the fray.

Macduff emerges and searches the chaos frantically for Macbeth, whom he longs to cut down personally. He dives again into the battle.

Malcolm and Siward emerge and enter the castle.

Summary: Act 5, scene 8

Elsewhere on the battlefield, Macbeth at last encounters Macduff. They fight, and when Macbeth insists that he is invincible because of the witches’ prophecy, Macduff tells Macbeth that he was not of woman born, but rather “from his mother’s womb / Untimely ripped” (5.8.15–16). Macbeth suddenly fears for his life, but he declares that he will not surrender “[t]o kiss the ground before young Malcolm’s feet, / And to be baited with the rabble’s curse” (5.8.28–29). They exit fighting.

Malcolm and Siward walk together in the castle, which they have now effectively captured. Ross tells Siward that his son is dead. Macduff emerges with Macbeth’s head in his hand and proclaims Malcolm King of Scotland. Malcolm declares that all his thanes will be made earls, according to the English system of peerage. They will be the first such lords in Scottish history. Cursing Macbeth and his “fiend-like” queen, Malcolm calls all those around him his friends and invites them all to see him crowned at Scone (5.8.35).

Read a translation of Act 5, scene 8 →

Analysis: Act 5, scenes 1–8

The rapid tempo of the play’s development accelerates into a breakneck frenzy in Act 5, as the relatively long scenes of previous acts are replaced by a flurry of short takes, each of which furthers the action toward its violent conclusion on the battlefield outside Dunsinane Castle. We see the army’s and Malcolm’s preparation for battle, the fulfillment of the witches’ prophecies, and the demises of both Lady Macbeth and Macbeth. Lady Macbeth, her icy nerves shattered by the weight of guilt and paranoia, gives way to sleepwalking and a delusional belief that her hands are stained with blood. “Out, damned spot,” she cries in one of the play’s most famous lines, and adds, “[W]ho would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him?” (5.1.30, 33–34). Her belief that nothing can wash away the blood is, of course, an ironic and painful reversal of her earlier claim to Macbeth that “[a] little water clears us of this deed” (2.2.65). Macbeth, too, is unable to sleep. His and Lady Macbeth’s sleeplessness was foreshadowed by Macbeth’s hallucination at the moment of the murder, when he believed that a voice cried out “Macbeth does murder sleep” (2.2.34).

Read important quotes about guilt.

Like Duncan’s death and Macbeth’s ascension to the kingship, Lady Macbeth’s suicide does not take place onstage; it is merely reported. Macbeth seems numb in response to the news of his wife’s death, which seems surprising, especially given the great love he appears to have borne for his wife. Yet, his indifferent response reflects the despair that has seized him as he realizes that what has come to seem the game of life is almost up. Indeed, Macbeth’s speech following his wife’s death is one of the most famous expressions of despair in all of literature:

> “Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,Creeps in this petty pace from day to dayTo the last syllable of recorded time,And all our yesterdays have lighted foolsThe way to dusty death.Out, out brief candle.Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor playerThat struts and frets his hour upon the stage,And then is heard no more. It is a taleTold by an idiot, full of sound and fury,Signifying nothing. (5.5.18–27)

These words reflect Macbeth’s feeling of hopelessness, of course, but they have a self-justifying streak as well—for if life is “full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing,” then Macbeth’s crimes, too, are meaningless rather than evil.

Read an analysis of Macbeth’s speech following the death of Lady Macbeth.

Additionally, the speech’s insistence that “[l]ife’s . . . a poor player / That struts and frets his hour upon the stage” can be read as a dark and somewhat subversive commentary on the relationship between the audience and the play. After all, Macbeth is just a player on an English stage, and his statement undercuts the suspension of disbelief that the audience must maintain in order to enter the action of the play. If we take Macbeth’s statement as expressing Shakespeare’s own perspective on the theater, then the entire play can be seen as being “full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing.” Admittedly, it seems unlikely that the playwright would have put his own perspective on the stage in the mouth of a despairing, desperate murderer. Still, Macbeth’s words remind us of the essential theatricality of the action—that the lengthy soliloquies, offstage deaths, and poetic speeches are not meant to capture reality but to reinterpret it in order to evoke a certain emotional response from the audience.

Read more about metaphors and similes in Macbeth.

Despite the pure nihilism of this speech, Macbeth seems to fluctuate between despair and ridiculous bravado, making his own dissolution rougher and more complex than that of his wife. Lured into a false sense of security by the final prophecies of the witches, he gives way to boastfulness and a kind of self-destructive arrogance. When the battle begins, Macbeth clings, against all apparent evidence, to the notion that he will not be harmed because he is protected by the prophecy—although whether he really believes it at this stage, or is merely hanging on to the last thread of hope he has left, is debatable.

Read more about the shifting style of speech in Macbeth.

Macbeth ceased to be a sympathetic hero once he made the decision to kill Duncan, but by the end of the play he has become so morally repulsive that his death comes as a powerful relief. Ambition and bloodlust must be checked by virtue for order and form to be restored to the sound and fury of human existence. Only with Malcolm’s victory and assumption of the crown can Scotland, and the play itself, be saved from the chaos engendered by Macbeth.

Question 11

Q

Who was Shakespeare?

Answer

A

Shakespeare
Shakespeare is England’s most famous playwright. He lived from 1564 – 1616. His plays can be divided into Histories (e.g. Henry VI), Comedies (e.g. Midsummer’s Nights Dream), and Tragedies (e.g. Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet).

For the majority of his career, Shakespeare wrote for the acting group the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (who became known as the King’s Men in 1603 when James I ascended the throne). Thus, his characters and writing style correspond to some of his most talented actors (Richard Burbage, for instance; most well known for his role as the first Romeo and the eponymous character Hamlet).

Shakespeare was writing during the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a period between the 14th and 17th centuries where there was an expansion of artistic expression. This expression freed itself from the restrictions of previous centuries.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sha kespeare.jpg CC-BY-SA-4.0

Plays were an incredibly popular and central medium of entertainment during the Elizabethan and Jacobean era. Macbeth is a history play (like Richard II and Henry IV) and was written in 1606 - a few years after the ascension to the throne of James VI of Scotland who succeeded as the monarch of England in 1603 known as James I.

Shakespeare’s plays were a form of mass entertainment for Londoners during that period. The importance of entertainment as a function of the plays must be understood when studying them; critical analysis is important, but should not detract from the bigger-picture view that these were first and foremost written to entertain.

Question 12

Q

What is the history of Macbeth?

Answer

A

Macbeth is a dramatic tragedy. It follows his classic five-act structure. The tragedy surrounds the protagonist Macbeth, and the witches act as catalysts for the play’s events.

● Hamartia: Hamartia is an ancient Greek term first used by Aristotle in his Poetics. It literally means ‘fatal flaw’. A character’s fatal flaw is the thing that leads to their ultimate downfall - in Macbeth’s case it is his ambition and lust for power that led to his inevitable downfall and is the arc of play between him and his wife.

Catharsis: This is also an ancient Greek term that means the ‘purging’ or ‘cleansing’ of emotions, particularly through pity and fear, that the audience experiences at the end of a tragedy. It results in renewal and restoration. Aristotle applied the term to literature in his Poetics, arguing that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic work, and that achievement of a catharsis in the audience was a mark of a tragedy’s quality. Macbeth’s self- destructive actions climax in Act 5, when he is stripped of his majesty, loses his wife and then his own life. This leads the audience to pity Macbeth and as such, the audience experiences catharsis.

Question 13

Q

Macbeth Source texts?

Answer

A

Macbeth source texts
The original source of the story of Macbeth comes from Holinshed’s Chronicles (1577), which is a large work describing the collaborative histories of England, Scotland and Ireland. Although this is a historical document, most now believe that the narrative is now more legend than truth. Holinshed’s Chronicles was the main source for many of the history plays of Shakespeare.

Another influence for Shakespeare’s Macbeth is Holinshed’s ‘Historie of Scotlande’.There is also some evidence to suggest that the play in part may have been written by someone else. Some suggestThomas Middletoncould have written it as there are some lines in Macbeth, particularly the songs and dances from the witches, which follow the words from Middleton’s playThe Witch. While this served as a basis for the plot of Macbeth, Shakespeare did take manyartistic liberties both to make it better for the stage and to attend to the political needs and preferences of the time.

The following table compares Shakespeare’s did take several liberties from Holinshed’s ‘Historie of Scotlande’, here are3 main ones and the motivation for the changes.

Question 14

Q

What was the Jacobean Era and Who was king James I

Answer

A

The history surrounding King James I is vital for a
deeper understanding of the Scottish tragedy, as
in some ways the life of King James I can be
referred to as a Scottish tragedy. There was a significant amount of uncertainty at the end of Queen Elizabeth‘s reign because she had no heir. In the life of James his parents were Mary I, Queen of Scots and his father was Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. His mother, Mary I was imprisoned and forced to abdicate the throne and so a one-year-old James VI became the King of Scotland and never saw his mother again. Later in 1587, when James was 31, his mother was executed by Queen Elizabeth I and prior to this, when James was 8 months old, his father was assassinated by an explosion at their family home. When James took his position as the King of Scotland he made an alliance with Elizabeth I securing his place as her successor.

Question 15

Q

Historical Context of Witchcraft

Answer

A

King James I, had a great interest in the supernatural and witchcraft, so much so that he wrote a book called ‘Daemonologie’ (1597), meaning ‘the science of demons’. The book was published in 1603 when he became the King of England, and was reprinted twice during his reign. James I firmly believed that witchcraft was an act of Satan and the way one became one was by making a deal with the devil to get some sort of supernatural power.

Daemonologie may have also been a source for Shakespeare’s Macbeth, as many of the practices of the witches in the play agreed with the beliefs which king James had.

The book was a dialogue in which James extensively explained his beliefs on witchcraft, aiming to bring to light evidence which would warrant the claim and also justify the death penalty as a punishment for witchcraft. The book was split into three parts:

● Magic and necromancy

● Witchcraft and sorcery

● Spirits and spectres

The purpose of the book was not just to provide evidence for witchcraft for those who did not believe; it was also for those who did believe to inspire them to carry out witch hunts. Witch-hunting was known and accepted practice in the time of Elizabeth I‘s reign, however, the number of trials and executions were not very high.

In contrast, Scotland had severe laws against witchcraft. After James published his book the cases of witchcraft skyrocketed by 53%. After James became the king of England he increased the severity of the law regarding witchcraft. He enacted a new law in 1604 a year after he became king, the name of the act was ‘An Act against Conjuration, Witchcraft and Dealing with Evil and Wicked Spirits’. This act made witchcraft a felony punishable by death and removed interference from the clergy.

Question 16

Q

What was the Divine rights of kings?

Answer

A

James I believed in the divine right of kings, so he believed that he was chosen by God to be the king of England and the righteous judge of England. He believed in witch trials and witch hunts not only out of a moral conviction, but also, due to the fact that he was ordained by God, he had a supernatural duty to complete witch-hunts. Furthermore, in the Great Chain of Being, the king is the closest being to God on Earth. Because of this close relationship, it was the role of the king to enact the will of God - which James believed was to rid the earth of witchcraft, and therefore witches.

Before this, in 1589 when James was just the King of Scotland (rather than King of Scotland and England), his soon-to-be wife, Anne of Denmark, was supposed to set sail to meet him.

However, due to rough weather she was unable to complete the journey. James decided to go on the journey to get his betrothed himself, but on the way, he and his men were attacked by the deadly weather. James believed that the only cause of this was witchcraft. Afterwards, when James returned to Scotland, he launched a witch hunt on a scale that had not been seen before in the town of North Berwick in which 70 suspects were rounded up and tortured into confessing their use of magic and then brutally burned at the stake. After this James commissioned a pamphlet detailing the events and then soon after he wrote and published his book ‘Daemonologie’ (1597).

While James was a religious fanatic, it can be argued that that was not the origin of all his strong beliefs on witchcraft. King James I was deeply misogynistic, which can be attributed to the patriarchal times he lived in. Evidence of Jame’s misogynistic views can be found in his book Daemonologie in which he asserted that only women could be witches because they were the ‘weaker sex’ and so could be easily entrapped by the ‘snares’ of the devil. James I, saw the Bible as evidence of this belief; he looked to the story of Adam and Eve, believing that because Eve was the one that was tricked by the serpent, it shows that women are more easily influenced and persuaded to the side of evil and so only women could be witches.

Question 17

Q

How was Witchcraft presented in Macbeth?

Answer

A

Witchcraft plays a large part in Macbeth and provides a basis for the events of the play. King James’s beliefs definitely played a role in this, influencing Shakespeare’s literary decisions. For example, the expedition which James took is incorporated into the play, the line ‘Though his bark cannot be lost/Yet it shall be tempest-tossed’ is potentially a reference to the storm that James experienced on his way to Denmark.

The witches in the play serve many purposes. Not only do they set the pace for the play, but they also serve as a warning against witchcraft, evil and bloodshed. There are parallels in the tragedy between the witches and the three Fates in Greek mythology who were in charge of the destinies of mortals and who spun the weave of the lives of humans. Similarly, Hecate in Macbeth who was the witches’ mistress, in Greek mythology she was the goddess of witchcraft.

The Scottish tragedy starts with the words of the witches
and ends in blood and carnage. By creating discord and
confusing the line of succession only evil and bloodshed came to be. This is a warning to the English people about witchcraft and evil - it is both a sin against God as well against the state; in the words of King James I witchcraft is “high treason against God”.

Some have even argued that Lady Macbeth is the fourth witch in the play, due to her passion and her power and ambition. Sometimes women in power were attacked and accused of witchcraft.

Question 18

Q

What was the Great Chain of Being?

Answer

A

Great Chain of Being
This was an ideological belief circulating this time, which originated from the ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato. The Great Chain of Being was a conception of the universe in which everything, plant, animal or mineral, had a fixed place, according to its important and spiritual nature. This hierarchy started with God, under whom came then the king. At the bottom of the Great Chain of Being were the rocks. The Great Chain of Being explains why the sin of regicide and the resulting punishment was perceived as such a serious sin. When Lord and Lady Macbeth conspired and killed King Duncan, not only did they commit a carnal sin, and a sin against the state, but also a sin against the order of the universe. According to the Great Chain of Being, the King should rule commoners, who should accept their place. Macbeth’s actions distort the natural order of the universe, setting off chaos and bloodshed.

Question 19

Q

What was the Divine Right of Kings/ Gunpowder Plot

Answer

A

The gunpowder plot was a failed conspiracy by some Catholics
to assassinate the king and parliament on November 5th 1605.
The Divine Right of Kings was a belief that God had specifically
chosen monarchs to rule the country and so an attempt to kill
the one God had chosen was not just a worldly sin but actually a
sin against God. This belief system is seen in Macbeth as it is
possible that the tragic consequences of Lord and Lady
Macbeth are because they did not just commit a carnal sin but
they also sinned against God, for which the punishment is
eternal damnation. Macbeth can be seen as a warning against
regicide and a representation of what could happen if any of the audience attempted it. James I believed that the gunpowder plot was an act of witchcraft and allusions of this can be seen in Macbeth through the quote ‘Faith, here’s an equivocator, that could swear in both the scales against either scale; who committed treason enough for God’s sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven. O, come in, equivocator’ (Act II, Scene III).

The king’s beliefs regarding witchcraft and the divine right of kings changed the mood of England, and were a direct contrast to the ‘Golden Age’ of Elizabeth I’s reign. The witch trials and hunts that took place during James’ reign and resulted in thousands of deaths marked a dark time in English and Scottish history. This dark mood pervades Macbeth, a story in which higher forces ‘control’ and dictate the lives of people. Through Macbeth, the viewer is able to see the terrible consequences of what happens when power is given to these forces of darkness.

Question 20

Q

Significance of Religon in Macbeth

Answer

A

Religion
During this period in England, there was a lot of religious conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism. Both are denominations of Christianity, but there were (and still are) core differences or contradictions in their beliefs. It was customary to have the state’s religion dictated by the ruling monarch. Jacobean England was Protestant since James I was also. At this time, when a certain religion was dominant or official, adherents to other religions or denominations were treated very cruelly - often killed for their faith. For this reason, when James I became king many Catholics believed that James I would treat them better, since his mother Queen Mary of Scotts was Catholic. However, James, who was a Protestant, did not and this was a part of the reason for the gunpowder plot hatched by a group of Catholics.

When James was the King of Scotland his title was King James VI but when he became the King of England his title was then King James I because there had never been a King of England called James.

The Protestant Reformation did not happen until the 16th century. Macbeth, on the other hand, is set in the 11th century, when Protestantism did not exist. Despite this, in the Scottish tragedy, Shakespeare considers a lot of religious debates such as predestination vs free will and forgiveness vs suffering. These debates reflect key differences between Protestantism and Catholicism. There are also religious allusions throughout Macbeth.

● Religious allusions: There are similarities between Adam and Eve and Lord and Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth persuades her husband to sin just as Eve persuaded Adam. Lady Macbeth’s ambition and thirst for power, like Eve’s, leads to their ultimate demise.

● Predestination vs free will: Predestination is the belief that before we are born God has already decided whether we are going Heaven or Hell, and there is nothing in life that you can say or do that can change this. In contrast, free will is the belief that we have choices in everything we do, and these choices determine where we end up after we die. This theological debate plays out in Macbeth. It can be argued that Macbeth is just a victim of predestination through the prophecies of the witches. On the other hand, it is possible that Macbeth is only a victim unto himself.

● Forgiveness vs suffering: It has long been debated theologically whether suffering is necessary for true
forgiveness to take place. This debate is considered in
Macbeth; some can argue that because of Macbeth’s sins he is beyond forgiveness. This belief may have been what led to Lady Macbeth’s suicide.

Question 21

Q

What was the Setting of Macbeth?

Answer

A

While Macbeth was written in England 1606, the setting is in 11th-century Scotland, which was the homeland of King James I. The setting and weather that Shakespeare chose reflect the mood of Macbeth and pathetic fallacy is used as a tool to create a more in-depth experience, so that the audience can be completely absorbed by the play’s atmosphere. Scotland is a dark and moody place, and the dark and mood weather Shakespeare specifies is used to reveal the tone of the play and even Macbeth’s character.

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The play starts with bleak weather as the witches describe the first battle scene with Macbeth as being ‘fog and filthy air’ (Act I Scene I). The fog represents the uncertainty and mystery surrounding the play’s events - the audience will have been deeply unsure about what would unfold. That the air is ‘filthy’ also points to moral degradation. The role of the witches is uncertain at the beginning of the play. As the events unfold things don’t particularly become clearer, and likewise the fog is something that remains throughout. At the end of Act I Scene I, the witches say that ‘fair is foul and foul is fair’, this is to say that things have been reversed (and morality has been turned upside down). This may be foreshadowing how the unsettling of the Great Chain of Being through regicide.)

Question 22

Q

How is Macbeth presented as Ambitious, Brave, Changeable, guilty conscience?

Answer

A

Macbeth in Macbeth

Macbeth is a complex character who changes throughout the course of the play. He is clearly a brave warrior and leader at the start of the drama but he falls victim to the Witches’ predictions. It is unclear whether they plant ideas in his mind or whether they simply highlight thoughts that he has already had. In a series of soliloquies he repeatedly questions himself about his motives for killing the King but is eventually persuaded to continue by his forceful wife.

Having committed murder he finds himself caught in a spiral of evil from which he can see no escape. His actions become less heroic and more cowardly as he continues to murder and terrorise others in order to hold on to his power. Towards the end of the play, when he realises that he is doomed, he briefly returns to his old heroic self.

Social and historical context

James I (and VI of Scotland)

A king in Shakespeare’s time was thought to rule by ‘divine right’. This meant that God had chosen that person directly to rule over others. The killing of a king (known as regicide) was therefore considered to be just about the worst crime that anyone could commit. That is why Macbeth’s decision to murder Duncan seemed so horrific to an audience of the time and why the murderer has such a guilty conscience. The new King on the throne of England, James I (also known as James VI of Scotland), was paranoid about assassination attempts. This was unsurprising, since the infamous Gunpowder Plot to blow up the King and Parliament had taken place just months before Macbeth was first performed.

Question 23

Q

Who is Macbeth?
What does he symbolise and why?

Answer

A

SYMBOLISES THE PERILS OF AMBITION

INTRODUCTION

Macbeth is the eponymous character of this Shakespearean tragedy. He is a tragic hero, meaning he starts out in a position of glory and success, but falls from grace due to an error in judgement of his own making. Every tragic hero has a fatal flaw, or hamartia: Macbeth’s is his unchecked ambition. He can’t restrain himself from going after what he wants, regardless of moral consequence.

When we are introduced to Macbeth, he is presented as the stereotypical hero, the ideal
warrior. He fulfils the expectations of masculinity and proves his manhood. Shakespeare uses his noble status to give him a place to fall from. All tragic heroes have to start at the top, so that they can fall. Macbeth’s journey from hero to villain, from brave warrior to coward, allows for an exploration of gender, power, and morality.

Macbeth’s tense, passionate relationship with his wife also allows Shakespeare to examine gender roles, marital relations, and power in his own society. Because Macbeth allows himself to be overpowered by his wife, you could say that he takes a more feminine role in their marriage. He descends from a brave, masculine warrior to a passive feminine coward. Could this change in gender expression be linked to his villainy? If so, Shakespeare is suggesting that breaking the norms and order of society makes you vulnerable to corruption and temptation.

Macbeth’s character is significant in terms of philosophy, religion, and morality. His personality is defined by both his ambition and his guilt. On the one hand he is fixated on the future he desires. On the other, he is constantly looking over his shoulder, haunted by his crimes. A question Shakespeare explores through Macbeth is one of predestination; Macbeth’s life seems to be controlled by fate, but how much of Macbeth’s story was foretold, and how much was of his own making? Was he destined to become a hellish villain, or was there anything he could have done to keep his place in Heaven?

Question 24

Q

How is Macbeth used in Context to present ideas about Gender and Religon?

Answer

A

Gender

It would be easy if Macbeth was only used by Shakespeare to explore masculinity, but in practice, the gender performance associated with his character is much more ambiguous.

➔ Overwhelmingly, Shakespeare writes Macbeth to be a symbol for toxic and repressive masculinity, ultimately associating manhood with violence.

➔ At the same time, though, Macbeth’s fear of being emasculated, and the ‘feminine’ traits he inherits at certain points in the play, means Shakespeare uses his character to explore femininity.

Initially, it seems like Macbeth has no reason to worry about his manhood. He is successful in battle, has a loyal wife, and is destined to work his way up the social ladder. But it quickly becomes apparent that this isn’t enough for him. For Macbeth, the ideals of valour, power, and violence become synonymous with masculinity. He is convinced that if he doesn’t pursue kingship as much as possible, he will be exposed as effeminate.

Also note how his relationship with Lady Macbeth influences his decisions, and how the power dynamics change as the play progresses.

➔ Macbeth, for most of the play, treats Lady Macbeth as his equal, or even his superior. He allows himself to be manipulated by her, because she has the power to strip him of his masculinity.

Ambition is his fatal flaw, but his disputed masculinity is his weakness. Any challenge to his manhood is enough to convince Macbeth of any crime. You could argue that what Macbeth’s ambition strives for, more than to be king, is to be indisputably ‘manly’.

Religion

As Jacobean England was so deeply religious, it’s
no surprise that faith is mentioned in the play which is full of sinners and treachery. Macbeth rarely mentions God by name, but the idea of Heaven and Hell plays heavily on his mind. This suggests he is worried about the destination of his immortal soul.

➔ He mentions jumping “the life to come”, implying he is sacrificing an eternal life in Heaven so that he can enjoy power and status during his finite life on Earth.

A significant part of Macbeth’s character arc is how he copes (or tries to cope) with turning his back on God. While contemplating Duncan’s murder, he acknowledges that Heaven will object to his plans. He frets that Duncan’s virtues as a good king will somehow cry out against the murder. This could refer to how his subjects will literally mourn his death, or it could be metaphorical: Macbeth may be worried that Heaven and Earth will react negatively to the murder.

Killing Duncan is a landmark decision in his moral path, as it is a conscious choice to put an end to his good ways and embrace corrupt temptation. Straight after the murder, Macbeth has a moral crisis and an identity crisis.

➔ One of the signs of his inability to cope is how he will “sleep no more”.

➔ The other is that he could not “say Amen”. These affect Macbeth so deeply because
they both demonstrate that life as he knows
it is over. He will no longer live like the rest

of humanity. He has strayed from God’s path, and so has lost God’s protection.

Shakespeare constructs Scotland after the murder as a godless, Hellish land to match its king. Crops fail, strange cries fill the air, and the country lives in eternal darkness. Macbeth’s mental state mirrors the state of his kingdom. Shakespeare suggests that living without God is the worst fate a man can have.

Question 25

Q

How does Macbeth represent:

Homosociality & Male Friendships
Tragic Hero

Answer

A

Homosociality & Male Friendship

Male friendships were a huge part of Jacobean culture. It was a patriarchal society where women were expected to stay at home, so the public domain was exclusively male. Men were business partners, colleagues, and school peers. Most of the time, a man’s only company was other men. This meant men were emotionally and psychologically attuned to each other, and became very close.

The influence of military standards on society also meant that male solidarity and loyalty were important values. In battle, soldiers relied on each other, and desertion was unthinkable. The same rules applied to life outside of war.

Part of Macbeth’s moral crisis comes from the ideal of male friendship. Killing Duncan means betraying a friend, relative, and his king. This goes against everything Macbeth has been taught to value and uphold. Similarly, killing Banquo is such a shocking act - particularly for a Jacobean audience - because Macbeth is supposed to be his closest friend. No one can suspect Macbeth at first because the idea of a man betraying another was preposterous.

Tragic Hero

The concept of the tragic hero was popular in Shakespeare’s plays and in Renaissance theatre as a whole. There are several stages to a tragic hero’s journey:

➔ The hamartia, or tragic flaw that causes their downfall.

➔ The hubris, or excessive pride and disrespect for the natural order

➔ Peripeteia, or reversal of fate

➔ Anagnorisis, or discovery

➔ Nemesis, or unavoidable punishment

➔ and finally catharsis, where the audience feels pity and fear for the protagonist in their undoing.

For Macbeth, his hamartia is his unchecked ambition. Shakespeare uses the idea of the tragic hero to teach his audience the importance of morality, and of respecting God’s will. Having a tragic hero means the audience feels sympathy for them despite their failings.

Shakespeare ensures we root for Macbeth, wanting him to succeed and avoid detection, even though we know what he’s doing is wrong. This creates a big moral crisis for the audience, guaranteeing they will be more engaged with the topic and debate it. Our investment in Macbeth also makes his turn towards pure villainy more painful to bear. Even though we relate with his desires and are, to a certain extent, on his side, we are forced to admit that he is wrong, and that his tragic death is deserved and just.

Question 26

Q

What are the key characteristics of Macbeth?

Answer

A

Ambitious

Unchecked ambition is Macbeth’s undoing in the play. If he had been patient, and waited for the title of king to come to him, he would have improved his position in society and kept his soul fit for Heaven. Under the forceful hand of Lady Macbeth, though, Macbeth gives into temptation. As a result, he ends the play in a much lower position than when he started. He loses grace, favour, and respect - from his peers and from the audience.

The issue, Shakespeare argues, isn’t ambition itself, but
the way Macbeth allows himself to be controlled by it.
We know this because other characters, like Banquo and
Malcolm, show ambition, but know how to restrain
themselves. They can judge the situation, and recognise
when it’s best not to listen to their desires for the good of themselves, their loved ones, and the country they serve. Macbeth, on the other hand, is oblivious to morality and natural order.

Shakespeare shows his audience that ambition is a sin when it goes against God’s will for the way things are meant to be. By killing Duncan to become king, Macbeth fights his way up the Chain of Being. Think of it like swimming in a river: Macbeth goes against the current, led by his ambition, and this is what is so dangerous and shocking. Shakespeare seems to want to teach his audience the importance of self-awareness, conscience, and self-restraint. You should be content with God’s plans for you. You should control your ambition, and not let your ambition control you. At a time when people were plotting to kill the king and fear of espionage (spying) was rife, these were very relevant and important messages.

Guilty

Immediately after the murder, Macbeth becomes a man who is guilt-ridden and tragically remorseful. He has to live with what he’s done, and with the knowledge that there is no undoing it. His guilt makes him a nihilistic figure, a character tormented by his own conscience. He is surrounded by blood, darkness, and death. Although unchecked ambition is what causes Macbeth’s downfall, his guilt makes

his undoing unbearable for him and the audience.

What might have been a historical or political play that follows the righteous uprising against a tyrannical king becomes a psychological tragedy because of how Shakespeare follows Macbeth’s mental state. Macbeth’s ambition propels him into unescapable regret, suggesting that the real punishment for regicide isn’t execution, but guilt. Even when no one suspects him of foul play, Macbeth is troubled and cannot enjoy the life he sacrificed his immortal soul (what Christians believed lived on after death and went to Heaven or Hell) for. Shakespeare suggests that the conscience, or inner voice of God, that we all have ensures that no crime or sin can go unpunished. He proposes that no one can cope with the guilt our conscience creates, nor can we live with the knowledge of our own evil.

Violent

The play of ‘Macbeth’ is filled with violence and conflict, both internal and external. No one suffers more from this than Macbeth himself. The smallest scale of conflict he endures is his internal conflict, and the largest is the conflict between free will and fate that takes over the whole universe. Similarly, the conflicts between good and evil, between the supernatural and the natural, and between appearances and reality, go beyond Macbeth and rage across Scotland.

Violence is largely associated with manhood and masculinity, particularly by Macbeth. Whenever his manliness is challenged, Macbeth responds by committing a violent, ruthless act. He represses any feelings of fear or doubt, viewing them as signs of weakness and femininity. Furthermore, cruelty and violence are linked with masculine ideals of honour and bravery. Men are supposed to be noble and strong leaders, and Macbeth interprets this as bloodlust. Shakespeare could be implying that ideals such as bravery and honour are used to disguise injustice. Warfare and violence are presented as necessary and respectable measures, allowing men to follow selfish emotion rather than selfless logic.

Importantly, Shakespeare demonstrates how violence and bloodshed are used to maintain tyranny and corruption. They are tools for bad kings. Unlike Duncan’s reign, which is portrayed as a nurturing, fruitful harvest, Macbeth’s is plagued by disease and murder. If he was an effective ruler who obtained his power through fair means, he wouldn’t need to use violence to protect himself. As it is, his power is wrongly gained, and his reign is corrupt.

➔ He declares that “blood will have blood”. Shakespeare argues that violence breeds more violence. Macbeth is trapped in a cycle of bloodshed and conflict.

Macbeth, furthermore, is at the centrepoint of the power plays. In many ways, what matters more in the play is the fight for power, rather than the power itself. There is a constant push and pull between the main players, as each tries to keep hold of power. Shakespeare portrays power as being elusive and tricky - its possession can’t be guaranteed. This is what drives men insane: they crave power, but what they have is never enough, and they live with the constant threat of losing it all. Macbeth is an example of this. He kills for more and more power, finding that what he already has isn’t enough to satisfy himself. Again, he is trapped in a cycle of his own making.

Question 27

Q

What are the key moments for Macbeth in the beginning?

Answer

A

Beginning (1.1 - 2.2)

We never really get to see what Macbeth is like at the very beginning of the play. The first time he’s on stage, he meets the Witches, and their prophecies are the catalyst (cause) for his change in character.

From what we hear of him, Macbeth sounds like an impressive man. The determined way he fights for Scotland in battle suggests bravery, skill, and loyalty to his country. However, for the opening scenes Macbeth’s character is plagued with inconsistencies and contradictions. We get the impression we are watching two different personalities fighting it out in front of us, each corresponding to a different destiny.

➔ The idea of murdering Duncan surprises and shocks him, as if the suggestion came from a different person altogether.
➔ With each scene that passes, he seems to have made the opposite choice to the scene before. His main soliloquies are full of debate, deliberation, and anxiety.

Already, we see a glimpse of the guilt that will haunt him after the murder takes place. We see his moral compass and conscience have a voice, but there are also moments where he seems heartless and dead set on being king regardless of consequence. Right up until he kills Duncan, it’s not impossible that he could back out.

Another key trait that defines Macbeth’s character in the opening scenes is his weak will. He takes the opinions and suggestions of others to heart and can’t avoid being manipulated by them. Lady Macbeth, in particular, holds a lot of power over him. Linked to this is his fragile sense of masculinity. It’s clear that Macbeth will do whatever it takes to prove himself and his manliness. You could argue that his weak will is entwined with his ambition, which is typically named as his fatal flaw. His ambition for power ties in with his deflated ego. The power he craves isn’t supernatural or physical. What he wants is the title of king and the recognition it brings. Being king means his peers - and his wife - will have to respect him. It will be a testament to his masculinity, the ultimate proof of manly strength.

Question 28

Q

How is Macbeth presented in the middle?

Answer

A

Middle (2.3 - 3.4)

Macbeth’s crisis of character is at its most extreme during the middle of the play. The attributes and skills he possessed at the start don’t make an appearance: he is cowardly, indecisive, paranoid. Most significantly, he is consumed by guilt.

➔ The conflict between ambition and conscience has evolved into a conflict between ambition and guilt.

➔ He deeply regrets what he’s done and cannot bear to face it, yet another part of him isn’t satisfied.

➔ His ambition drives him further and further into bloodshed and betrayal.

Macbeth’s seemingly inexorable (unstoppable) descent into violence could also be attributed to his paranoia. As we discovered before, Macbeth’s public image is very important to him, because it helps him believe he’s still a good man. Though he kills people in cold blood, he doesn’t do it without a reason. At least, in his eyes, he has a good reason. And that reason is always protection. Anyone who could defeat him or expose him is killed.

Part of what makes his guilt so difficult to bear is his revelation that power doesn’t come with a guarantee. Murdering Duncan has taken a great toll on him, and he knows it, so he is frustrated that he put himself through so much for nothing. He believes he has to keep fighting to keep hold of his power.

As Act 3 comes to a close, Macbeth comes to a resolution. He decides to embrace his new life of violence, believing he has to see it through to the end. It’s clear Macbeth thinks he has paid the price of murder by sacrificing his innocence and peace of mind, and he needs to make it worth the cost. This perspective marks the third and final part of his character development as we enter the final scenes of the play.

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Question 29

Q

How is Macbeth presented in the ending?

Answer

A

Ending (3.5 - 5.9)
As with the rest of the play, in the final acts it seems like two different Macbeths walk the stage. One is violent and ruthless, hellbent on furthering his own power and status, no matter the cost. The other is dejected, dispirited, and nihilistic, someone who knows his power is meaningless and is haunted by his own mortality, but can’t do anything about either. He is friendless, loveless, and hopeless, as Shakespeare shows that killing your king and going against God will bring nothing but misery and suffering.

Undoubtedly, Macbeth has become a tyrant. To repress all feelings of guilt and regret, he embraces violence and greed. He wants to feel
invincible and unstoppable - like God.

➔ We hear from his subjects and from Malcolm and Macduff that Scotland is in ruins because of Macbeth’s brutal ruling style.

➔ We also know that, eventually, all of his followers and men betray him.

➔ Because he’s not an authentic king, Shakespeare demonstrates that he can’t inspire any authentic feelings of loyalty or love.

Macbeth’s behaviour and actions give the impression that he doesn’t care what anyone thinks of him. He believes he’s above criticism or condemnation because he’s king, and fortune is on his side.

Similarly, Macbeth’s hubris peaks in Act 4, as he
believes he is immune to fate and higher powers.
Hecate tells us as such when she addresses the Witches. Macbeth has lost sight of his humanity and weaknesses, so that he’s possessed by arrogance, confidence, and pride.

➔ His slaughtering of Macduff’s innocent family implies he believes he shouldn’t be limited by moral or social rules, and exploits his power as king to kill whenever he pleases.

➔ The way he immediately resorts to murder suggests he has an exaggerated view of his own importance, because he acts as if his slight discomfort warrants bloodshed.

The battle that closes the play gives us an opportunity to directly compare how Macbeth behaves at the beginning and end. Some of the same qualities of bravery, righteous violence, and determination have resurfaced by Act 5, but he’s a different, broken man. He has lost everything and everyone: an army of one, fighting for himself rather than for his king and country.

Question 30

Q

What are Macbeths relationship like with other people?

Answer

A

Lady Macbeth | Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are incredibly ambitious and power-hungry. Most of what we see of their marriage is their plotting and conspiring. Both are weakened by guilt and paranoia as the plot develops, and by the end have isolated themselves from each other. The main difference between them is their confidence: Lady Macbeth is determined,

ruthless, strong-willed, and self-assured, whereas Macbeth is uncertain, weak-willed, and hesitant.

The power dynamic between them switches. Initially, Lady Macbeth holds the power in their relationship, despite being in an inferior position according to society. She relies on Macbeth for power and status, but controls Macbeth like he’s her own puppet. Eventually, Macbeth breaks away from her, plotting without her and keeping secrets.

Duncan | Both Duncan and Macbeth are kings of Scotland, but one is the rightful king, while the other is a detested tyrant. Duncan is renowned for his

fatherly love and attention for his subjects, whereas Macbeth’s reign is associated with Hell and the Devil.

At first, they appear to be on the same side. Macbeth is Duncan’s loyal Thane, someone Duncan relies on for guidance and protection, and Macbeth is proud to serve his king and country. Duncan’s trust in Macbeth is misplaced, as Macbeth’s loyalty is weak.

Malcom | Just like Macbeth, Malcolm wants to be king. Unlike Macbeth, Malcolm is the rightful heir to the throne, and has been chased away from what’s his by Macbeth’s actions. Macbeth is associated with disorder, chaos, and sin, while Malcolm is a symbol for peace, purity, and order.

Macduff | Macduff is Macbeth’s foil in the play, meaning he highlights the flaws Macbeth has. Both start out as Duncan’s Thanes and are highly respected in the courts and in battle, but when Macbeth takes the throne, Macduff suspects him. Macduff chooses allegiance to his country, unlike Macbeth, and runs to England to join Malcolm. He is a symbol for honour, nobility, and selflessness.

Banquo | Banquo is Macbeth’s best friend, another highly respected soldier. He, too, hears the Witches’ prophecies, but chooses honour and loyalty over power. He resists his greed and temptations. He is physical proof of Macbeth’s corruption and paranoia. He shows it’s possible to hear such promising prophecies and not turn to murder, and his inside knowledge of Macbeth means he can expose him.

Macbeth’s decision to murder Banquo, someone who meant a great deal to him, shows how overwhelmed he is by ambition and paranoia. The memory of the murder is something he can’t live with, as shown by the appearance of Banquo’s accusatory, blood-stained ghost.

Another difference between Banquo and Macbeth is highlighted in the Witches’ prophecies. Though he won’t be king himself, his sons will be kings. The Witches say he will be happier and greater than Macbeth. Therefore, Banquo is a symbol for honour, loyalty, and prosperity: his legacy is much better than Macbeth’s

Question 31

Q

“I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition which o’erleaps itself / And falls on th’other.” - Macbeth, (A1S7)

What does this quote mean?

Answer

A

● Macbeth knows that the only argument for killing Duncan is to satisfy his ambition. He also knows that blindly obeying ambition will end in disaster. The phrase “o’erleaps itself / And falls on th’other” suggests ambition makes people think illogically, so that they overestimate their own abilities and get ahead of themselves. Additionally, it portrays ambition as self-destructive. It “o’erleaps itself” rather than having someone or something else make it “o’erleap”.

● The metaphor of horse-racing continues throughout this whole line of thought, mimicking the way people treat life as a race or competition. The motif evokes the sense of a rush to the finish, with everyone panicked as they chase down power and success.

● In the metaphor, Macbeth sees himself as both jockey and horse. Shakespeare could be implying that Macbeth is trying to control his ambition, but feels like his ambition will end up controlling him. As he is reduced from the jockey to the horse, he becomes more animalistic.

● This reflects the way the Jacobeans believed the only thing that separated humans from animals was reason or logic. If a man lost his reason and acted irrationally, he was a beast. Macbeth is aware that ambition can make him act mindlessly, in the same way an animal would.

Question 32

Q

“For brave Macbeth - well he deserves that name - / Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel, / Which smoked with bloody execution, / Like Valour’s minion carved out his passage / Till he faced the slave, / Which ne’er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, / Till he unseamed him from the nave to th’chaps / And fixed his head upon our battlements.” - Captain, (A1S2)

What does this quote suggest?

Answer

A

● This recount of the battle against Norway and the rebels portrays Macbeth as the hero Scotland needs. He is “brave” and highly skilled with his sword - both traits typically associated with heroism. Shakespeare shows how violence and bloodshed are romanticised in the context of war, with impressive imagery such as “disdaining Fortune” and “smoked with bloody execution”. Because Macbeth is fighting for his country, his actions are righteous and honourable. It’s interesting to note how, when he behaves in the same ruthless way later in the play, he’s viewed as tyrannical and horrific. Shakespeare could be criticising the culture of aggressive masculinity and honourable warfare.

● The metaphor “smoked with bloody execution” implies violence is a destructive force, like fire. Shakespeare combines smoke and blood, two motifs that recur throughout the play and are linked to Macbeth’s guilt. The imagery could be an allusion to the flaming swords featured in the Bible.

● Angels and other representatives of God were granted flaming swords - for example to guard the Garden of Eden after Adam and Eve were thrown out. This link portrays Macbeth as a soldier of God, suggesting he fights on the side of good and has God’s blessing. Shakespeare shows how highly respected and admired Macbeth was by his peers.

● Macbeth is referred to with the simile “like Valour’s minion”, portraying him as the epitome of courage and chivalry. “Valour” refers to a demonstration of courage in the face of danger, especially in battle, while “minion” suggests a loyal follower. This implies Macbeth can be trusted because he will always show courage in battle, and is dedicated to victory in the face of defeat. He is a saving grace for Scotland. Alternatively, “minion” connotes a slave or an unimportant servant. This would mean Macbeth is the inferior servant of a greater power, in this case Valour. This implies he will blindly turn to violence and conflict, and foreshadows his vicious and brutal ambition.

● Another interesting aspect of this quote is how it perfectly summarises the events of the play. Describing how Macbeth is “disdaining Fortune” alludes to his later hubris and defiance as he tries to dodge destiny. The description of how he ruthlessly and mercilessly slaughters his opposition, “unseam[ing] him from the nave to th’chaps”, predicts his tyrannical behaviour as he chooses to murder any possible threat to his power. Lastly, the traitorous Macdonald has “his head fixed upon [the] battlements”. The same fate meets Macbeth in the final scene of the play. This implies that Macbeth had the ability to be evil within him all along. Alternatively, Shakespeare may be demonstrating how evil will always be punished. The balance between good and evil is maintained, so the same paths are followed again and again as God keeps order.

Question 33

Q

What does this quote suggest

“Stars, hide your fires; / Let not light see my black and deep desires: / The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be, / Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see.” - Macbeth (A1S4)

Answer

A

This quote exemplifies the contradictory, fragmented nature of Macbeth’s character. The duality between light and dark, such as “stars” and “black and deep desires”, is a symbol for the conflict between Macbeth’s conscience, or moral compass, and his ambition. Here, he finally admits to himself that he wants to become king no matter what, but isn’t prepared to face the reality of what that means. The metaphor “the eye wink at the hand” is a synecdoche, which is a literary technique where a part is used to represent the whole. In this case, the “eye” represents Macbeth’s consciousness or awareness - his mind - while the “hand” represents his actions and reality. He wants to turn a blind eye to his own murderous deeds. Despite it being what “the eye fears”, he wants it to be “done”. This paradox causes a lot of tension and tragedy for Macbeth. It’s impossible to be unaware of your own actions, but he is torn apart in his attempts to do just that.

● The phrase “stars, hide your fires” could refer to several things. Firstly, the “stars” might represent the gods or the heavens. In this case, Macbeth doesn’t want them to see his sins, in the hopes that he will still be blessed by them and have salvation. Equally, he fears their judgement and disappointment. Similarly, “stars” could be previous heros. It was common in mythology for heros to be immortalised in the stars, like with constellations. Macbeth still wants his chance at being a hero to his country. Alternatively, asking the “stars” to “hide [their] fires” could show how Macbeth wants to operate in darkness. This means he can avoid detection from others, but more importantly, doesn’t have to witness his own corruption and villainy.

Question 34

Q

“Out, out, brief candle! / Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player / That struts and frets his hour upon the stage / And then is heard no more. It is a tale / Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing.” - Macbeth (A5S5)

What does this quote suggest?

Answer

A

Macbeth knows his end is near at this point in the play. The change in tone and the pathos (feeling of pity and sadness) this whole soliloquy evokes gives the impression that Macbeth has suddenly awakened from his stupor. His wife is dead, his kingdom is falling apart, and he is truly alone. All his ambition and sacrifice has been for nothing.

● The imagery and metaphors used in this excerpt emphasise how life is a facade, with no purpose or meaning to it. The nouns “candle”, “shadow”, “player”, and “tale” all connote imitation and emptiness. Also, they are all temporary or delicate. Shakespeare suggests that everyone is insignificant, a mere candle flame compared to the light of the whole universe. The semantic field of facade could show how people, particularly Macbeth, focus on the wrong things in life, so that they are looking at “shadow[s]” or “tale[s]” rather than the reality.

● Macbeth has been so fixated on his ambition and power that he has missed what really matters - or, in a more nihilistic interpretation, he never realised that nothing really matters. His ambition can’t live on past his death, and nor can his power. His crisis is caused by the undeniable truth of his own mortality, which nothing can contend with. For all his “sound and fury” - his violence and painful guilt - he has accomplished nothing everlasting: it signifies “nothing”.

● The extended metaphor of theatre is a meta (self-aware) technique by Shakespeare, almost breaking the fourth wall. He suggests that everything is playing a part rather than being their authentic selves, so that appearances don’t match reality. For Macbeth, he was playing the part of a moral and righteous servant, when really he was a murderer. You could also argue he was playing the part of being the chosen king. Another implication of this motif links to the influence of fate and fortune. No one is in charge of their own lives: like Macbeth, their lives are dictated by external forces.

Question 35

Q

How does ambition change Macbeth?

Answer

A

In Act 1 Scene 7 Macbeth himself admits that it is his own ‘vaulting ambition’ spurring
him on to kill King Duncan. He says this in a soliloquy, speaking not to another character
but to himself, verbalising his thoughts onstage for the benefit of the audience. In terms
of the tragic hero, Macbeth is here admitting his own hamartia.
As we all know, Macbeth goes on to kill King Duncan, before ordering the murders of Banquo,
Fleance (who escapes), and the wife and children of Macduff. He descends into a deep pit of
evil. Rather than look at each scene individually, let’s continue with the model from earlier
in the video and explore the way other characters speak about Macbeth in the rest of the play:
In Act 3 scene 6 Lennox refers to the country suffering under ‘a hand accursed!’. Even
the witches note Macbeth’s arrival in Act 4 Scene 1 with ‘Something wicked this way
comes’. In Act 4 scene 3 Malcolm calls Macbeth a ‘tyrant, whose sole name blisters our
tongues’ and labels him ‘Devilish’. In Act 5 scene 7 Young Siward calls Macbeth
‘abhorred tyrant’, Macduff calls him ‘hell-hound’ (in Act 5 scene 8) and in the play’s final
scene, after Macbeth is killed, Malcolm calls Macbeth a ‘dead butcher’.
We might add to this downward spiral into evil by exploring the lack of interest Macbeth
shows in the news that his wife has died. In Act 1 Scene 5, Macbeth addresses his wife
as ‘My dearest love’. Four acts later, in Act 5 Scene 5, when told of Lady Macbeth’s
death, he replies ‘She should have died hereafter’. It’s as if Macbeth has lost
his ability to feel, following the murderous path he has been travelling down.
From ‘brave’, ‘noble’ and ‘peerless’ at the start of the play, to ‘wicked’,
‘tyrant’, ‘devilish’ and ‘abhorred’ later on, clearly Macbeth has fallen from
his position of renown.
However, Shakespeare is keen to give Macbeth some redeeming qualities, and this is worthy
of analysis. Again, in his ‘Poetics’, Aristotle stated that the purpose of tragedy
is to ‘excite pity and fear’. The two are found equally in Macbeth. We learn to
fear the dangers of being over ambitious, but do we pity him? Macbeth needs to evoke
sympathy in the audience so that, when he dies, they feel pity for him. If we hate Macbeth,
we won’t learn any lesson from his downfall. After all, he’s not supposed to be an out and
out villain: he’s supposed to a character of good reputation whose one fatal flaw leads
to his downfall. So let’s look at how Shakespeare tries to keep the audience at least somewhat
sympathetic to the character of Macbeth.
In Act two scene 2, Macbeth murders Duncan, but this key moment takes place off-stage.
Why? In order to help the audience to still see some shred of humanity in Macbeth. If
we witnessed him killing the king with his bare hands, we would surely hate him. Similarly,
the murders of Banquo, Lady Macduff and her children do not take place at the hand of
Macbeth himself, but at his order. Why? For the same reason. Surely we could never feel
a shred of pity for Macbeth if we witnessed him murder his friend and other innocents.
Shakespeare also uses structure to ensure the audience never grows to hate Macbeth.
In Act three scene 5 an angry Hecate tells the witches that Macbeth is ‘a wayward son,
spiteful and wrathful, who, as others do, loves for his own ends, not for you.’ Hecate
essentially tells the witches that Macbeth is, as Wayne C Booth puts it ‘not a true
son of evil’. And what happens in the previous two scenes? The murder of Banquo and the appearance
of Banquo’s ghost. In other words, at a point in the play where the audience might
be tempted to hate Macbeth, the Hecate speech brings them back in line to thinking that
Macbeth is not truly evil.

In Act 5, as the play draws to and end and Macbeth’s doom appears to be inevitable,
Shakespeare paints Macbeth as heroic and brave, just like in the opening scenes of the play.
Macbeth has some success in the battle, for example killing his challenger young Siward.
Even when Macbeth learns that Macduff was born by caesarean and so is going to kill
him, he refuses to surrender, telling Macduff ‘I will not yield’ in Act 5 Scene 8. His
statement that ‘Before my body I throw my warlike shield’ (Act 5 Scene 8) is both
brave and, in this world where actions on the battlefield are so significant in proving
character, honourable. In fact, some critics have gone so far to say that the ending of
the play is the bravest moment of all for Macbeth.

Question 36

Q

How is Lady Macbeth presented as Ambitious, cunning & conscience-stricken?

Answer

A

Lady Macbeth is even more ambitious and ruthless than her husband. As soon as an opportunity to gain power presents itself, she has a plan in mind. She uses her influence to persuade Macbeth that they are taking the right course of action and even takes part in the crime herself.

For a while she is able to suppress her actions but eventually she becomes unable to deal with the guilt of what she has done. She becomes unable to sleep, and mentally unstable, eventually dying in tragic circumstances.

Social and historical context

In both Shakespeare’s time and in the time when the play takes place, women had a much lower status than would be the case today. Wives were little more than the property of their husbands and had no legal rights. Their main purpose was to have children and support their menfolk. Lady Macbeth appears to be a much more feisty character with ambitions and desires of her own; these are characteristics that could imply a lack of femininity. It is worth remembering that in the original performances of the play the part of Lady Macbeth would have been played by a man and this would have helped to emphasise the character’s masculine qualities.

Question 37

Q

Who is Lady Macbeth?
What does she Symbolise and why?

Answer

A

Social and historical context

In both Shakespeare’s time and in the time when the play takes place, women had a much lower status than would be the case today. Wives were little more than the property of their husbands and had no legal rights. Their main purpose was to have children and support their menfolk. Lady Macbeth appears to be a much more feisty character with ambitions and desires of her own; these are characteristics that could imply a lack of femininity. It is worth remembering that in the original performances of the play the part of Lady Macbeth would have been played by a man and this would have helped to emphasise the character’s masculine qualities.

Question 38

Q

What is Lady Macbeths appearance?

Answer

A

One of Shakespeare’s resounding messages in the play of ‘Macbeth’ is that nothing is as it seems. Appearances cannot be trusted as they rarely match up with reality. One of the most significant, and destructive, examples of this is the character of Lady Macbeth.

Lady Macbeth’s main role in the play is to shake things up and cause havoc, meaning her aim is to fool and manipulate as many people as possible with her deceitful ways. She benefits hugely from the divide between appearances and reality. Furthermore, she relies on people’s prejudices and assumptions to get away with her actions. For example, the male characters see she is a woman so assume she would not get involved with violence, these miscalculations of her character allow her to get away with a lot.

Some would argue she uses her feminine wiles to persuade Macbeth to kill for her: either way, the social conventions surrounding gender come to her advantage. Something she tells

Macbeth over and over is to make sure he puts on a facade for other people. She believes that as long as they can maintain their deceitful masks, they will get away with murder and so much more. Of course, she underestimates the power of her own remorse.

Another way Lady Macbeth exploits appearances is by transferring her desires and plans into Macbeth. She is the villain kept behind the scenes. Though Macbeth is the one acting and killing, he is fulfilling Lady Macbeth’s wishes. It is as if she has possessed him, or transformed herself into him through persuasion. It looks like Macbeth is the murderer, but in reality she is.

Lady Macbeth’s manipulation of appearances is the connection between her and the Witches. In fact, like the Witches, her gender identity is ambiguous. On the outside, she looks feminine,

but if her spells were successful, then she is wombless and full of gall on the inside.

Lady Macbeth isn’t even fully honest to her husband. Only we, the audience, know the extent of her plots and motivations. By allowing us to hear her soliloquies, Shakespeare emphasises the divide between appearances and reality and how extreme her deceit really is. Other characters on stage are oblivious of who she really is, but we know the dark truth. Moreover, as the plot develops, Lady Macbeth’s own sense of self deteriorates. Her suffering, torment, and hallucinations could all be side effects of her fragmented self. She has manipulated her identity so much that she is no one at all.

Question 39

Q

How is Lady Macbeth used in Context for:

*Femme Fatales**
*Eve and the Fall of Man**

Answer

A

Femme Fatales

Otherwise known as the maneater or vamp, this is a common archetype for female characters in literature and art. The term refers to a woman who is mysterious and seductive, using her charm to ensnare men and lead them into dangerous or deadly situations. Typically, femme fatales are villains and create a sense of unease for other characters and the audience.

Overall, the key aspect of a femme fatale is her use of feminine wiles (e.g. beauty or sexual allure) to exploit men and accomplish her own goals. Shakespeare uses these aspects of the femme fatale archetype in the character of Lady Macbeth. She threatens to emasculate Macbeth, and uses her power over him as his wife to get her own way. Some productions of ‘Macbeth’ even show Lady Macbeth using sexuality and seduction to explicitly manipulate her husband. All of this is for her own ulterior motives, and clearly she drives Macbeth to his own death. More so than warning of the dangers of unrestrained female sexuality, though, Shakespeare seems to be demonstrating the dangers of unrestrained female ambition and power.

Eve and the Fall of Man

The theme of ‘The Fall’, particularly of man, is used a lot in literature, and is linked to the concept of the tragic hero. The Fall is an archetype where a character descends from a higher to a lower state, often because something happens to them that means they lose their innocence and happiness. Typically, the character is kicked out of their ‘paradise’ as a punishment for their actions. Commonly, a woman is responsible for the fall of an honourable man.
➔ The most famous example of this is Eve, in the story of the Garden of Eden. The story given in the Bible goes that, when the world was first created by God, Adam and Eve lived with Him in the Garden of Eden. They were told not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge, and for a while they obeyed and lived in harmony. However, Satan came to the Garden disguised in the form of a serpent: he tempted Eve into eating the Forbidden Fruit. After she ate it, she convinced her husband, Adam, to do the same. They lost their innocence, and when God found out, he expelled them from the Garden.

◆ There are many parallels between Lady Macbeth’s story, the archetype of ‘The Fall’, and the Biblical tale of the Garden of Eden. You could even say there are parallels between how Eve was historically viewed as the cause of mankind’s Fall, and the way Lady Macbeth’s character has been interpreted as being the root of Macbeth’s evil.

Question 40

Q

How is Lady Macbeth used in Context for:

*Arthurian Legend**
*Marriage and Motherhood**
*Gender**

Answer

A

Arthurian Legend

Arthurian Legend refers to the legends of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. These stories were incredibly popular, and were seen as examples for ideal kingship and chivalry. King Arthur was brave, noble, kind, and loving. His knights, too, were chivalrous, adventurous, and determined to protect their kingdom. Lady Macbeth takes a similar role to Morgan le Fay: she is the lover of the story’s main hero, but she is also his downfall.

Marriage and Motherhood

In the Jacobean Era, women had no legal rights in society, and this meant that when they married, they became the property of their husbands. Their role was to have children and run the household. Domestic abuse, and even domestic murder, was extremely common. Maternal mortality (how common it was for a woman to die from pregnancy, childbirth, or the period after birth) was also extremely high. A woman’s destiny was to get married and have children. Any education she was offered was geared towards these two occupations: women were taught to cook and clean, and for the upper classes, they might be taught to dance or embroider, all in the hopes of attracting a man. Men were entitled to divorce or disown their wives at any time if they felt she had dishonoured them, disobeyed them, or brought shame to their reputation.

In ‘Macbeth’, Shakespeare allows us to see how Lady Macbeth copes with these aspects of life for women in the Middle Ages. Within her marriage, she is a dominant figure with her own clear identity and purpose. Outside of her marriage, she is viewed only as Macbeth’s wife and a good host. Her relationship with motherhood is much more complicated. It seems like, at some point, she had children, but they must have died, as there are no signs of children when the play unfolds. She tries to banish all her reproductive organs from her body, rejecting the role of mother altogether.

Gender

Whether Shakespeare intends to show the perils of femininity or of androgyny through Lady Macbeth depends on how successful you think her prayers to the spirits were. If we are to believe she was successful in unsexing herself, then her villainy and disturbing personality suggest that gender nonconformity is dangerous. By losing her femininine identity, she loses her humanity. Alternatively, if we still view her as a female character, her acts of manipulation and seduction portray women as deceitful, wicked beings.

She also plays a pivotal role in Macbeth’s perception of his own gender. Her highly critical attacks on his manhood, and her perception of masculinity as violent, drives Macbeth to murder and tyranny. This adds to Shakespeare’s exploration of manliness.
Lady Macbeth is a very unconventional female character by traditional and Jacobean standards. She is given multiple soliloquies - something that usually only male characters were allowed. When Shakespeare first introduces her to us, she has the dominant role in her marriage, which would have been unheard of. Rather than appearing weak or idiotic, she is smart, cunning, and bloodthirsty, and embraces the occult and villainy in order to achieve her goal. She is so powerful that a Jacobean audience would view her as unnatural, possibly even supernatural.

Shakespeare suggests through her character that giving women power is dangerous and unnatural. It also appears that the only way for a woman to be so brutal and strong is to be evil and supernatural, which is why she prays to
evil spirits. Her character allows Shakespeare
to examine gender roles, marital relations,
and the division of power in his society.

Question 41

Q

What are the key characteristics of Lady Macbeth?

Answer

A

● Ambitious: Lady Macbeth’s ambition
is much more intense and violent than
Macbeth’s. She doesn’t hesitate or
deliberate: immediately she decides to
pursue the promise of Macbeth’s
kingship. She craves power and, later, protection. She has been a ‘weak’ woman all her life, and now is her chance to answer her desires and reach her full potential. Her ambition is infectious. How authentic or committed Lady Macbeth’s ambition is appears unclear. She speaks in a very violent, brutal fashion, but never acts on these impulses. Her words aren’t supported by her actions. Plus, she admits that she can’t bear looking at Duncan’s corpse because he resembles her father.

● How successful her wish to be “unsex[ed]” and made cruel was is questionable. After Duncan’s murder, she loses a lot of her confidence. Her ambition disappears, and she is fixated on her paranoia. It seems her ambition was all bravado. Lady Macbeth is quite a frightening character because of how she commits herself entirely to her ambition. Ambition for her is an act of sacrifice: she abandons all hopes of virtue or salvation by calling upon evil spirits. Like with Macbeth, Shakespeare argues that ambition itself isn’t the issue, but the way Lady Macbeth embraces its control. On the other hand, Lady Macbeth doesn’t care for morality and natural order. She doesn’t care for other people: they’re just obstacles to her goal.

● Supernatural: There’s a lot of evidence for Lady Macbeth being the fourth Witch (excluding Hecate), but unlike the three Macbeth meets on the heath, Lady Macbeth is instrumental in planting the idea of murder in his head. She speaks in rhyming couplets while persuading Macbeth to agree to her plan, and her command of rhetoric and manipulation imitates the Witches’ spells and trickery. Equally, her plan rests on her ability to use facade to manipulate reality, meaning her relationship with appearance vs. reality is similar to the Witches’.

Her subversion of femininity was, in Jacobean times, more than enough evidence that she was a witch. Shakespeare implies her unnatural power as a woman is due to her supernatural links. Lady Macbeth could be called the ‘creator of evil’ in Macbeth. She is the main conspirator out of the Macbeths, and plants the idea of evil in Macbeth’s mind. The methods she uses to manipulate him hold explicit links to the supernatural. She wants to “pour [her] spirits in [his] ear”, an allusion to demonic possession.

○ This quote also connotes the story of the Garden of Eden, where the serpent tempted Eve to sin, and Eve then whispered in Adam’s ear so that he might join her. Lady Macbeth can be viewed as an imitation of Pandora from Roman mythology: Pandora opened the box that brought all evil and sin into the world. Shakespeare associates the Fall of Man with seduction, femininity, and the supernatural.

● Guilty: Guilt and remorse are the undoing of Lady Macbeth, leading her to her death. Unlike Macbeth, she isn’t killed after an uprising: she kills herself. Her mind is her enemy. Her ambition took her down violent paths that she couldn’t cope with, and Shakespeare suggests guilt and regret are the most destructive consequences of that. Everyone underestimates the power of their own conscience. The insanity and torment she feels at the hand of her guilt is punishment for her villainy.

● At first, Lady Macbeth shows no signs of guilt or remorse. In fact, she’s the one telling Macbeth off for worrying and panicking. She is convinced that washing the blood off their hands will free them from their deeds altogether, assuming that there will be no lasting impacts. This might also suggest that she is incapable of seeing how murder has psychological consequences. To her, the only link to the murder is the literal blood on her hands. She fails to anticipate that the murder will live with her beyond that night. This shows how she views herself to be cruel and ruthless. She represses any morality she has. Alternatively, this may reveal how desperate she is to put the murder behind her and continue with her life as normal.

● The act of washing your hands of blood becomes symbolic in the play. Shakespeare uses it to show how guilt persists beyond physical evidence. Lady Macbeth’s bold words “a little water clears us of this deed” come back to bite her, as in her final scene, we watch her repeatedly try to wash invisible blood off her hands. However, there are signs early on that Lady Macbeth isn’t as tough and cold-hearted as she wants to appear. She never refers explicitly to the murder or to blood: she uses euphemisms, such as “deed” and “great business”. This implies she can’t confront reality, and can’t face the grotesque or macabre. Shakespeare argues that guilt is the direct opposite of ambition. One focuses on the future, the other on the past. Ambition longs for power regardless of consequence, whereas guilt forces us to face the reality of our deeds.

Question 42

Q

What is Lady Macbeth like in the beginning?

Answer

A

Lady Macbeth’s most striking and significant performances happen at the beginning of the play. From them, we get a clear idea of who she is - or, arguably, who she wants to be. Her first lines are a soliloquy, demonstrating her importance and strength of will. Though she doesn’t appear on stage until the 5th scene, she has a large impact on the direction the plot takes, and it is her plots and wishes that get fulfilled in the first two acts.

Lady Macbeth’s speech at the beginning of the play is littered with deceit, treachery, and omens of death. The prospect of being queen and controlling the fate of another empowers her, and she doesn’t want anything to come between her and the crown. Violence and cruelty are a means to an end for her because they bring her closer to getting what she wants and allow her to prove herself. Alternatively, you could argue that there are signs Lady Macbeth enjoys gratuitous violence - violence for the sake of violence. She knows that Macbeth will become king regardless of her own actions, but opts for the murderous route to the throne. She vows to smash a baby’s head open for Macbeth as a sign of loyalty, despite him never asking for her to do such a thing. Both interpretations explain why Lady Macbeth doesn’t care about moral consequence: her bloodlust and her selfish persistence leave no room for others and their feelings.

Shakespeare most wants to convey that Lady Macbeth’s character is her ability to manipulate, tempt, and seduce. She is the root of Macbeth’s evil, and this comes hand in hand with her supernatural contacts. It isn’t just significant that she has soliloquies in her first scenes: the allusions to witchcraft and the diabolical portray her as a villain, and it’s as if she’s casting her own spells. She wants the power of the occult to achieve her aim, suggesting she is willing to sacrifice everything to be queen.

She bullies Macbeth with cruel and cutting insults, but also entices him with promises of power and success. The way she greets him, calling him a soon-to-be king, mimics the Witches’ own. After Macbeth’s soliloquy where he concludes that he has “no spur to prick the sides of [his] intent, but only / Vaulting ambition”, Lady Macbeth appears on stage, suggesting that she is that very “spur”, “vaulting ambition” personified. This all means she knows his weaknesses and temptations, and exploits them for her own gain. He has no hope of beating her. She is the Serpent and Eve combined, the call of the Sirens luring sailors to their graves.

Question 43

Q

What is Lady Macbeth like in the middle?

Answer

A

Middle (2.2 - 3.4)

In the climax of the murder in Act 2 Scene 2, we see how Lady Macbeth takes charge and remains calm while Macbeth has a personal crisis. This elaborates on what we saw in the first act: Lady Macbeth is in control and is the dominant planner out of the two Macbeths. Except for one moment of honesty when she admits she couldn’t kill Duncan because he looks like her father, she is cold and unruffled, completely remorseless and ruthless.

She is frustrated with Macbeth because of his guilt, hysteria, and
fear - something that happens continually for the rest of the
middle section - portraying her as unempathetic and closed-off.
It’s as if her spells were successful and she is an invincible,
amoral villain, presenting her as a Witch. To her, guilt goes as
far as the blood on her hands, and can be disposed of just as
easily. The contrast between her and Macbeth’s reactions - her coldness against his panic - makes her appear far-removed from humanity and its worries. On the other hand, her one display of emotional vulnerability could foreshadow her guilt and torment later.

In Act 2 Scene 3, Lady Macbeth gets a chance to demonstrate her acting skills. So far, her plan is chillingly successful. The way she feigns grief and manages to fool everyone in the vicinity with her performance suggests she has an uncanny ability to imitate and replicate human emotion. As an audience, we learn that she is an unreliable character: we don’t know how much of what she says and does is genuine.

As we enter Act 3, we see cracks starting to appear in Lady Macbeth’s calm. She’s still unaffected by guilt, but she’s paranoid. Moreover, she’s anxious about how Macbeth is faring. His own paranoia and guilt are causes of great concern for her, and she doesn’t want his incompetence to ruin her plan. This tension and frustration comes to a head when Banquo’s ghost appears. She can’t understand why Macbeth is behaving the way he is, and is angry that he would be so terrified by something so foolish, putting her in danger by doing so. She mocks and chastises him (tells him off) for displaying weakness, implying she’s very passionate about keeping in control.

Despite her best efforts, we see Macbeth spinning out of control and away from Lady Macbeth’s grasp. She can’t stop him from seeing ghosts. She knows they need to be wary of Banquo, but Macbeth won’t tell her what he has planned. By the end of the banquet scene, we know that the two are on separate paths, each isolated in their paranoia despite having the same fears. The Lady Macbeth we saw in Act 1, the wife who had an unbreakable hold over her husband, is nowhere to be seen.

Question 44

Q

What is Lady Macbeth like in the end?

Answer

A

Ending (3.5 - 5.9)
We next see Lady Macbeth on stage in Act 5 Scene 1. This is also the last time she ever appears before her death. The person we see is even further away from the person who plotted the death of a king in Act 1: she is entirely absorbed in her fear, talking to herself while oblivious to her surroundings. Her last line in
the banquet scene was “you lack the season of all natures, sleep”, so it’s fitting that now she paces at night, sleepwalking but unable to rest. Finally, her sins have caught up to her.

Lady Macbeth’s speech is incoherent, frantic, and continuous, as her internal monologue is said aloud. She alternates between worrying about her growing guilt and telling an imagined Macbeth off for jeopardising their plot. For example, in one long string of monologue, she says, “The Thane of Fife had a wife. Where is she now? What, will these hands ne’er be clean? No more o’that, my lord, no more o’that. You mar all with this starting,” going from panicking about their growing body-count to scolding Macbeth for being jumpy in an instant. The random, disjointed structure of her speech reflects how she’s torn between her ambition and her guilt. Part of her is holding onto the woman she was before, someone who was fearless and unsympathetic of Macbeth’s fear, while the rest of her is descending into remorse and grief. Therefore, there is a level of hypocrisy in her character. A case of situational irony is the way she worries about being unable to wash the blood from her hands: earlier, she thought a “little water” would clear her of guilt, but now she learns this isn’t true.

Lady Macbeth is hardly mentioned by the other characters for the rest of the play. Only upon her death does Macbeth think of her, highlighting how separate the two of them have become. She drifted away from the outside world, caged inside the castle. Before the murder, Lady Macbeth could never have imagined fading into such insignificance.

Lady Macbeth is forgotten until the last scene of the play, where she is referred to not by name, but by the epithet “fiend-like queen”. On the one hand, this summarises who Lady Macbeth wanted to be at the start, suggesting she will be remembered for her villainy and cruelty. On the other, the use of “queen” presents her as Macbeth’s sidekick and wife, reducing her to the back bench as all women were in Jacobean society. She has no individual identity, and is known only by her relation to Macbeth. Little do they know that she was the one who put the whole plan into motion.

Question 45

Q

What is Lady Macbeth’s relationship like?

Answer

A

Macbeth | Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are incredibly ambitious and power-hungry. Most of what we see of their marriage is their plotting and conspiring. Both are weakened by guilt and paranoia as the plot develops, and by the end have isolated themselves from each other. The main difference between them is their confidence: Lady Macbeth is determined, ruthless, strong-willed, and self-assured, whereas Macbeth is uncertain, weak-willed, and hesitant. The power dynamic between them switches. Initially, Lady Macbeth holds the power in their relationship, despite being in an inferior position according to society. She relies on Macbeth for power and status, but controls Macbeth like he’s her own puppet. Eventually, Macbeth breaks away from her, plotting without her and keeping secrets.

Question 46

Q

“Glamis thou art, and Cawdor, and shalt be / What thou art promised; yet do I fear thy nature, / It is too full o’th’milk of human kindness / To catch the nearest way.” (A1S5) - Lady Macbeth

What is this quote about?

Answer

A

Follow the same structure as the Witches’ prophecies, implying she has her own psychic abilities and associating her with the supernatural.

● Lady Macbeth “fear[s]” Macbeth’s kind nature; fear is typically associated with evil or the supernatural, but in this statement, Lady Macbeth reverses this thought. By fearing Macbeth’s kindness, she implies that morality is a frightening, threatening thing. Alternatively, “fear” reveals how desperately Lady Macbeth wants to become queen. The noun “nature” alludes to Macbeth’s mortal soul and shows that she is referring to Macbeth’s true identity, the parts of himself that he can’t change. Therefore, she is presenting Macbeth as a person whose moral compass and compassion are inherent or permanent.

○ Moreover, by calling it “human kindness”, she implies Macbeth’s personality is universally recognised to be kind. Shakespeare implies kindness is exclusive to “human[s]”, and is an objective thing, meaning it can’t be disputed or interpreted differently. Macbeth shares his goodness with the rest of the human race, but Lady Macbeth wants to rid herself of it, and take him with her.

● Lady Macbeth continues to portray Macbeth’s “human kindness” a s an unfavourable trait for him to have. The phrase “too full” again suggests his nature will be an obstacle to her plans, and might also be interpreted as a sign of corruption.

○ In ancient medicine, people believed that your health depended on having a balance of four different fluids, or ‘humours’. By suggesting Macbeth is “too full” of “milk”, Lady Macbeth might be implying he is ill or mentally unbalanced. The metaphor “milk of human kindness” presents kindness as a fluid, changeable thing. Milk can expire, go rotten, or be poisoned, so Shakespeare may be hinting that though Lady Macbeth is worried about Macbeth at the moment, she believes she can corrupt him. Alternatively, “milk” connotes breastfeeding, and so associates “human kindness” with femininity. This presents compassion as a weakness, something that emasculates Macbeth and stops him from being the strong, brave king she wants him to be. The use of the “milk” metaphor, as well as applying a ‘feminine’ trait to Macbeth, suggests gender is fluid.

Question 47

Q

“Hie thee hither, / That I may pour my spirits in thine ear / And chastise with the valour of my tongue / All that impedes thee from the golden round.” - Lady Macbeth, (A1S5)

What is this quote about?

Answer

A

● Lady Macbeth summons Macbeth with a “hie thee hither” in the same way that the Witches summoned their familiars (animal companions) in the opening scene. This suggests she views him as a means to an end, or a tool to help her get her way.

● The imagery of “pour my spirits in thine ear” evokes demonic possession, showing how Lady Macbeth wants to overpower Macbeth with her own villainy.

● This whole extract might seem sexual, and one interpretation is that sex is used in the subtext to illustrate the power dynamics Lady Macbeth is manipulating. Typically, to “pour [your] spirits” would be a masculine action, while the one receiving those “spirits” would be seen as the female. However, in this case, Lady Macbeth wants to take the masculine role, reflecting how she consistently strips Macbeth of his manliness. In keeping with the theme of gender that Lady Macbeth uses in her first soliloquies, she wants to subvert traditional gender roles as a way of getting what she wants.

Question 48

Q

“Come, you spirits / That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here / And fill me from the crown to the toe topfull / Of direst cruelty; make thick my blood, / Stop up th’access and passage to remorse / That no compunctious visitings of nature / Shake my fell purpose nor keep peace between / Th’effect and it. Come to my woman’s breasts / And take my milk for gall, you murd’ring ministers.” (A1S5) Lady Macbeth

Answer

A

This is a pivotal moment in her character development. She is dedicating herself entirely to her conspiracy, even willing to sacrifice her own mind and body to whatever evil “spirits” will help her reach her goal. She views herself as a harbinger of death for Duncan, and so it’s fitting that what follows is, for all extents and purposes, a witch’s spell.

● The use of anatomy, such as “the crown to the toe” and “breasts”, makes her speech feel very invasive and uncomfortable, as well as illustrating how Lady Macbeth is trying to mutate into something else. Furthermore, the reference to “blood” and “milk” shows how her soul and mind will also be affected. Because of the theory of the four humours in medieval medicine, a person’s bodily fluids (such as Lady Macbeth’s “blood”) would have determined their true nature. By asking the spirits to tamper with her insides, Lady Macbeth is asking for a complete makeover. Alternatively, the combination of “blood” and “gall” could be an allusion to Jesus’ crucifixion. Jesus’ side was pierced to prove he was dead, and blood came gushing out; before he died, the Roman soldiers offered him a wine laced with gall, or poison. Lady Macbeth is welcoming these substances, suggesting she is on the side of the Roman soldiers.

● The other key aspect of this quote is the theme of gender, summarised in Lady Macbeth’s use of the verb “unsex”. Though the attributes Lady Macbeth desires, including cruelty, are typically associated with masculinity, Lady Macbeth isn’t asking to be made into a man: she is asking to be rid of the parts that make her a woman. “Unsex” conveys androgyny and ambiguity. Lady Macbeth seems to associate goodness with humanity (“human kindness”), and Shakespeare implies that gender is a sign of humanity (“single state of man”). By being “unsex[ed]”, Lady Macbeth would escape the gender binary altogether, and so would be removed from humanity. This would free her from the burdens and weaknesses of morality and conscience.

Question 49

Q

“To beguile the time, / Look like the time, bear welcome in your eye, / Your hand, your tongue; look like th’innocent flower, / But be the serpent under’t.” (A1S5) Lady Macbeth

Answer

A

● This quote is an explicit nod to the theme of appearance vs. reality, as Lady Macbeth instructs her husband on how to fool everyone around them. Shakespeare shows how she intends to exploit the differences between appearance and reality, as well as exploit how gullible our senses are, to achieve her goal. Once again, Shakespeare uses anatomical imagery, such as “eye”, “hand”, and “tongue”, as well as a semantic field of sight, “look” and “eye”, in Lady Macbeth’s descriptions of emotion. She tells Macbeth to make sure that any “welcome” or kindness he shows others is purely surface level. This suggests that their public personas are superficial and hollow, with no genuine meaning behind them. The body parts she lists implies that emotion can be replicated and imitated, as if it is a physical product rather than an abstract feeling. The theme of sight conveys how our senses can be tricked: we are taken in by appearances and performances.

● The parallel structure in “to beguile the time, / Look like the time” emphasises the idea of mirroring. Lady Macbeth tells Macbeth that the best way to trick people is by reflecting back at them what they want to see. Again, their identities are surface level, with no substance behind the reflective glass. The verb “beguile” conveys menace and manipulation. Also, it connotes● This quote is an explicit nod to the theme of appearance vs. reality, as Lady Macbeth instructs her husband on how to fool everyone around them. Shakespeare shows how she intends to exploit the differences between appearance and reality, as well as exploit how gullible our senses are, to achieve her goal. Once again, Shakespeare uses anatomical imagery, such as “eye”, “hand”, and “tongue”, as well as a semantic field of sight, “look” and “eye”, in Lady Macbeth’s descriptions of emotion. She tells Macbeth to make sure that any “welcome” or kindness he shows others is purely surface level. This suggests that their public personas are superficial and hollow, with no genuine meaning behind them. The body parts she lists implies that emotion can be replicated and imitated, as if it is a physical product rather than an abstract feeling. The theme of sight conveys how our senses can be tricked: we are taken in by appearances and performances.

● The parallel structure in “to beguile the time, / Look like the time” emphasises the idea of mirroring. Lady Macbeth tells Macbeth that the best way to trick people is by reflecting back at them what they want to see. Again, their identities are surface level, with no substance behind the reflective glass. The verb “beguile” conveys menace and manipulation. Also, it connotes enchantment and witchcraft, continuing to present Lady Macbeth as an enchantress.

Question 50

Q

“Nought’s had, all’s spent / Where our desire is got without content. ‘Tis safer to be that which we destroy / Than by destruction dwell in doubtful joy.” (A3S2) - Lady Macbeth

Answer

A

● Something significant about this quote is that Lady Macbeth says it when she’s alone on stage. This implies we can trust it more than other things she says, because she isn’t performing for an audience: as far as we can tell, she is being her genuine self. We see that she is admitting she is worried, something she would never want to confess to her husband. Both of the Macbeths are suffering from the same case of paranoia, but neither will confide in the other. The parallel phrases “nought’s had, all’s spent” s hows how Lady Macbeth’s thinking is black-and-white. She goes from one extreme to the other: from “nought” to “all”. Shakespeare implies that she sees no value in what they did unless they succeed fully - in other words, unless they never face consequences, and can enjoy life to the fullest. This portrays her as a selfish, unsatisfied character, and implies that currently, Duncan died for nothing. Shakespeare hints that the Macbeths will never be satisfied, and so will always have “nought”. Fulfilling your “desire” isn’t enough, because you need to be “content”, too. The list keeps growing.

● We can also detect fear in Lady Macbeth’s character. The use of the comparative adjective “safer” suggests Lady Macbeth is aware of their dangerous position, and wishes she could feel more at ease. Shakespeare suggests to his audience that this is a just punishment for her actions. The phrase “dwell in doubtful joy” is full of uncertainty and hesitancy, reflecting the unstable environment of the play. Shakespeare shows how nothing can be guaranteed, and this eats away at a person. The consonance of “d’‘ could mimic the chattering of teeth or stuttering, reflecting how Lady Macbeth is struggling to adapt to her new life.

Question 51

Q

How does Lady Macbeth subvert Gender roles?

Answer

A

First, a bit of historical context about the
role of women in Shakespeare’s time: Women
• belonged to their fathers and then their husbands when they married
• could not attend school or university • could not purchase property
• could not vote • were not allowed on-stage (in plays, the
female roles were acted by young men) • And now specifically on the role of wives:
wives were expected to be obedient and subservient to their husbands, serving as ‘hostess and
helpmate’ as one critic we’ll be looking at later puts it.
But we don’t need a history lesson to explore attitudes to women in ‘Macbeth’. The play
itself contains numerous moments which tell us something on this topic.
In Act 2 Scene 3, Macduff doesn’t want to inform Lady Macbeth about the murder of King
Duncan, telling her that ‘The repetition, in a woman’s ear, Would murder as it fell.’
Meaning that to tell this news to a woman would kill her. This presents women as weak,
in particular weaker than men. In Act 4 Scene 3, Macduff states ‘I could
play the woman with mine eyes’ meaning that he could weep like a woman.
In the same scene Ross says that Macduff’s return to Scotland would be so inspiring it
would ‘make our women fight’. Now up against this set of feminine stereotypes,
it is possible to see Lady Macbeth as the complete opposite?
If we are to view Lady Macbeth as powerful, as the ‘fiend-like queen’ Malcom refers
to her as in the play’s final scene, it hangs on the interpretation that she manipulated
an otherwise reluctant Macbeth into murder. As Elizabeth Klett puts it in ‘Women in
Literature: Reading Through the Lens of Gender’: ‘as a woman of ambition living in a patriarchal
world that allows no outlet for her intelligence, she becomes motivated to seize power through
her husband.’
If looking to evidence this point, we would have to go no further than Act 1 Scene 5 – the
first time the audience meets Lady Macbeth, and undoubtedly one of the most well-known
passages in all of Shakespeare. This scene has been taught a million times,
so I won’t spend long on it, but let’s take a look at the supernatural imagery, highlighted
on-screen. Shakespeare’s use of supernatural imagery,
with Lady Macbeth calling on evil spirits to fill her, might not be that shocking to
us today, but it was different in Shakespeare’s world. Practising witchcraft was a crime punishable
by death in Shakespeare’s time, and during the Jacobean era King James is estimated to
have been responsible for the burning of 4,000 alleged witches in Scotland alone. So, when
Lady Macbeth calls on evil spirits to fill her, the audience would be shocked at her
actions. She certainly doesn’t seem weak or passive here. When Macbeth enters, she
tells him that he must kill the King that very night, ‘O, never / Shall sun that morrow
see!’. By Act 1 Scene 7, Macbeth has just about talked
himself out of the idea of killing King Duncan. At this point in his speech, however, Lady
Macbeth enters – here’s the stage direction. This is an interesting structural technique
from Shakespeare as it gives the audience a visual cue. Macbeth has ‘no spur’, no
cause to murder his king except his ambition and, now, here enters Lady Macbeth.
Macbeth decides that ‘We will proceed no further in this business’ and Lady Macbeth
destroys his resolve and all his convincing arguments in less than fifty lines of dialogue.
Remember, this is Macbeth the warrior, the fearless leader in battle and he appears to
be verbally manipulated and coerced by his wife.
She tackles him using a number of different techniques. Firstly, she says that he is inconsistent
and changes his mind often (‘Was the hope drunk /Wherein you dressed yourself? Hath
it slept since?’). Secondly she uses his love for her against him saying that he obviously
doesn’t love her if he won’t do this (‘From this time/ Such I account thy love’). Thirdly,
Lady Macbeth says that her husband is no better than someone who is drunk all the time, deciding
things when intoxicated then changing their mind when hung over the next day (‘And wakes
it now, to look so green and pale’). Finally, and most importantly, she challenges his manhood
(‘When you durst do it, then you were a man’).
This is the most effective attack on her husband because (as we looked at in my character analysis
of Macbeth) his entire reputation is founded upon his bravery and courage and Lady Macbeth
is basically calling him the Shakespearean equivalent of ‘chicken’. She calls him
‘coward’, ‘poor cat’ and says ‘then you were a man’ until he gives in. So here,
Lady Macbeth comes across as powerful and dominant, seemingly persuading her reluctant
husband to kill the King. Another powerful moment for Lady Macbeth is
seen in the banquet scene in Act 3 Scene 4. As Macbeth falls apart in front of his guests,
it is Lady Macbeth who takes control. She both challenges her husband, asking him ‘Are
you a man?’ and directs the banquet guests, telling them first to ‘Sit’, then to ‘speak
not’ and finally to ‘go at once’. Lady Macbeth is very much in charge in this scene,
and her power is all the more noticeable when juxtaposed with the weakness of her husband.
Many people argue that Shakespeare was proto-feminist. Seeing as feminism, as it exists today, did
not exist in Shakespeare’s time, we use ‘proto’ at the beginning in order to make
that distinction. Scholars often look at Shakespeare’s female characters and point to their eloquence
and strength of character, concluding that Shakespeare must have been sending some sort
of message about women and what he thought of them. Considering the restrictions that
many women faced in Shakespeare’s time it’s certainly a persuasive argument, and one that
seems true of Lady Macbeth at this point. But another way of looking at Lady Macbeth
is to consider her, not as powerful at all. Could it be true that, far from being a proto-feminist,
Shakespeare is actually depicting Lady Macbeth as conforming to feminine stereotypes of the
era? What’s so clever is that we can begin this line of analysis looking again at Act
1 Scene 5. If Lady Macbeth is so powerful, why does she need the support of the forces
of darkness in order to carry out her plan? If Shakespeare is presenting women as powerful,
why does Lady Macbeth need to reject her femininity in order to do what she plans to do?
Rather than seeing Lady Macbeth as powerful in this scene, we might analyse her as a subservient
wife to her husband, fulfilling what Joan Larsen Klein describes in ‘The Woman’s
Part: Feminist Criticism of Shakespeare’, as ‘her wifely roles of hostess and helpmate’.
To begin this analysis, let’s look a little further back in Act 1 Scene 5, to the moment
Lady Macbeth reads the letter from her husband. In the letter to his wife, Macbeth hints at
his plan to kill Duncan when he writes ‘I have learned by the perfectest report they
have more in them than mortal knowledge. When I burned in desire to question them further,
they made themselves air, into which they vanished.’ In other words, Macbeth is saying
that the witches seemed to be speaking the truth about his future as king, a truth which
made him burn with desire to learn more. As an audience we know that Macbeth is already
thinking of murdering his way to the throne. In Act 1 Scene 4, Macbeth talks in an aside
about the realisation that the only way to become king, now Malcolm has been named as
Duncan’s successor, is to give into his ‘black and deep desires’ and ‘o’erleap’
Malcolm. This quotation suggests that Macbeth already had murder on his mind.

there are lots of moments where Lady Macbeth acts as helpmate to her husband:
It is Lady Macbeth’s idea to get Duncan’s grooms drunk with ‘wine and wassail’ in
Act 1 Scene 7 It is Lady Macbeth who unlocks Duncan’s
door ready for the murder, telling us that ‘The doors are open’ in Act 2 Scene 2
It is Lady Macbeth who gets the daggers ready (‘I laid their daggers ready’ A2s2)
Lady Macbeth who tells Macbeth to ‘wash this filthy witness from your hand’ a2s2
Who takes the daggers back to plant them on the guards
Who tells Macbeth to ‘get on your nightgown’ a2s2
Clearly Lady Macbeth’s role in the murder of King Duncan is significant, but does she
instigate it, persuading her reluctant husband to commit regicide, or does she simply assist
him in his plans, as the good helpmate wife of the era?
Whatever you believe, there is no doubt that Lady Macbeth’s power and influence diminishes
after Duncan is killed.
Joan Larsen Klein writes:
‘As soon as Duncan’s murder is a public fact, Lady Macbeth begins to lose her place
in society and her position at home. She does so because there is no room for her in the
exclusively male world of treason and revenge.
‘After Macbeth becomes king, he, the man, so fully commands Lady Macbeth that he allows
her no share in his new business. No longer his accomplice, she loses her role as housekeeper.
Macbeth plans the next feast, not Lady Macbeth. It is Macbeth who invites Banquo to it, not
Lady Macbeth, who had welcomed Duncan to Inverness by herself’ [In Act 1 Scene 6, when Macbeth
is already at the castle, it is nevertheless Lady Macbeth who greets the King – Macbeth
isn’t even in the scene].
As we know from the Macbeth revision song, Macbeth does not tell his wife about his plans
for Banquo, dismissing her with the condescending ‘Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck’
in A3s2.
After the banquet scene, Lady Macbeth appears only once more on-stage, suffering a breakdown
and later, off-stage, committing suicide. And why does the suicide take place off-stage?
Perhaps Shakespeare didn’t want the audience to be thinking too much about this character,
feeling that she could be a distraction from the main action unfolding on-stage.
We can see Shakespeare’s portrayal of Lady Macbeth in one sense as subverting feminine
stereotypes of the Jacobean era but also, in a contradictory way, reaffirming them.

Question 52

Q

How is Banquo presented as Noble and Questioning?

Answer

A

Banquo is another general in King Duncan’s army and Macbeth’s best friend. While both men have ambitious thoughts, Banquo is more cautious and does not resort to murder to get what he wants.

Banquo is aware that the Witches’ predictions may be tricking Macbeth into evil actions and is the first to suspect Macbeth of murder. He dies while protecting his son, Fleance, and comes back as a ghost to haunt Macbeth.

Question 53

Q

Who does Lord Banquo Represent?

Answer

A

Represents Macbeth’s Antithesis

Banquo is another general in King Duncan’s army and Macbeth’s best friend. While both men have ambitious thoughts, Banquo is more cautious and does not resort to murder to get what he wants.

Banquo is aware that the Witches’ predictions may be tricking Macbeth into evil actions and is the first to suspect Macbeth of murder. He dies while protecting his son, Fleance, and comes back as a ghost to haunt Macbeth.

Banquo is another general in King Duncan’s army and Macbeth’s best friend. While both men have ambitious thoughts, Banquo is more cautious and does not resort to murder to get what he wants.

Symbolism
Banquo is aware that the Witches’ predictions may be tricking Macbeth into evil actions and is the first to suspect Macbeth of murder. He dies while protecting his son, Fleance, and comes back as a ghost to haunt Macbeth.

The Witches’ prophecies

We can see the differences between the two men when we observe their reactions to the witches’ prophecies. Macbeth is “rapt withal” which bears

connotations of being entranced and absorbed by the Witches. However, Banquo will “neither beg nor fear your favours nor your hate” as he is indifferent to their prophecies. He takes the witches for what they physically appear to be - ragged old women. He doesn’t trust them so he perceives their prophecies with scepticism.

Banquo’s role as foil emphasised by the juxtaposition of his prophecies with Macbeth’s “lesser” and “greater”, with “happier” and “not so happy”. Here, Shakespeare’s use of antithesis in his phrasing hints that Banquo serves as Macbeth’s antithesis. This suggests Banquo is a morally strong and virtuous character who resists evil, providing a contrast to Macbeth, who is a morally weak, innately flawed and evil character who gives into temptation.

Temptation

Shakespeare’s exposure of both Banquo and Macbeth to temptation is necessary for the audience to view the contrasting responses to temptation. This allows them to decide which man is the morally righteous one.

Shakespeare portrays temptation as the crux of the play. It is vital for Banquo to be faced with temptation and ambition as it proves that Banquo is morally strong; his strength doesn’t come from an easy path, but from resisting temptation. Macbeth’s hamartia (a fatal flaw) is that he is too weak to resist the influence of the Witches and Lady Macbeth.

Arguably this is a message from Shakespeare to the audience that everyone is capable of evil and they must resist it. Banquo doesn’t speak out against injustice and corruption, despite being tempted by the promise of being “the root and father of many kings”. He won’t reveal the evil prophecy that promises him attractive things; perhaps this is because he wants it to come true too and has the flaw of ambition. However, his flaw is not his hamartia; he can resist it.

Question 54

Q

How is Banquo used in context?
Key characteristics of Banquo?

Answer

A

HARACTER IN CONTEXT

● Response to the Supernatural: Banquo resists the temptations of evil offered by the Supernatural (in the form of the Witches) throughout the play. This would have appeased a contemporary audience, which widely believed that the devil existed on earth and walked amongst humans trying to tempt them. Thus, the Witches can be seen as a symbol of temptation to sin that Banquo, as a moral superior, is able to resist.

○ When Banquo finds that the prophecy is coming true he responds with “what, can the devil speak true”. This implies that he views them as agents of the devil and sees them for what they are. This supports James I’s view in Daemonologie that witches are controlled by the devil.

● Church: Banquo would have been perceived by a contemporary audience as a moralistic character as his values were in line with those of the Christian Church. He calls upon God for help in resisting temptation: “merciful powers, restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature gives way to in repose”. Shakespeare uses the theme of temptation, which has Biblical connotations, in reference to Banquo.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

● Noble: Shakespeare demonstrates the noble qualities and Banquo’s “royalty of nature” as he is literally royal in nature - it was prophesied that “thou shalt get kings”. Also, royal in terms of virtue – he is honourable and virtuous. Thus he will disapprove of the murder, fight for justice and remain loyal to the king (Duncan) - as warned by “keep my bosom franchised“ .

● Strategic: The honour of Banquo is debatable as it could be argued that his response to the Witches’ prophecy is actually strategic. It is important to consider why Shakespeare allows for this debate to be had, through his ambivalent portrayal of Banquo. Banquo is repeatedly referred to as being noble and honourable, throughout the play: “noble Banquo”, “worthy Banquo”, “no less deserv’d”, “wisdom that doth guide his valour” and a “royalty of nature”. Banquo states that he must “keep my allegiance clear” – is this allegiance to the past king (Duncan) which would make him a threat to Macbeth, or allegiance to any king (which could make him an ally). He speaks in terms of business: “my allegiance” – loyalty and commitment – “my” – almost like he’s selling it and “augment” – make something greater / increase. This gives the sense of him playing strategically – carefully chosen and non-committal language. Allowing him to reserve his judgement so he can choose to support whichever side will best benefit him.

● Resistive to evil: Banquo’s response to evil separates him from Macbeth. They are exposed to the same influences – witches and promises of greatness - however, Banquo turns to God, asking for help in resisting evil and ultimately doesn’t act on his ambitions as he recognises they are a force of evil.

○** This is evident as he is suspicious from the start, as he questions “are you aught that man may question?*”. Here, he is recognising the Witches supernatural and therefore untrustworthy.
○** When he finds that the prophecy is coming true he responds with “what, can*

the devil speak true” and this implies that he views them as agents of the devil
– sees them for what they are; Banquo knows that the witches are a route of temptation to sin so he is able to resist them.

● Aligned with Jesus: Banquo could be used by Shakespeare to give a moral message to the audience about rejecting evil thoughts and the importance of turning to God in times of temptation. Banquo isn’t perfect, and is tempted on some level by the Witches’ prophecy, however his ability to reject evil is what makes him a moral character.

○ He is less able to resist ambition when he sleeps, shown by the comment: “I dream’d of the three weird sisters last night“ (showing he subconsciously thinks about the Witches’ prophecy). But instead of trying to hide this, he confesses to God and asks for help in remaining moral and virtuous. This has Biblical connotations as Jesus was tempted three times by the devil and resisted; perhaps Shakespeare is attempting to draw parallels between the Banquo and Jesus.

Question 55

Q

What is the significance of Banquo meeting the witches?

Answer

A

Here, Banquo and Macbeth meet the three Witches and are told the prophecy. For Banquo, whilst they say he won’t be King, they say his descendants will be. As Macbeth has just been told that he will be King, this sets up a tension between Banquo and Macbeth despite their long standing friendship. Banquo’s reaction to the Witches is one of suspicion, whilst Macbeth immediately believes the prophecies.

Question 56

Q

What is the significance of Macbeth plotting Banquo’s murder?

Answer

A

Death at the peripeteia (sudden reversal of fortune)
Shakespeare has an ulterior motive to portray Banquo’s death as a noble one. It is important to understand why Shakespeare deliberately decides for Banquo to be killed by Macbeth’s assassins and die while saving his child. This death would have been more compelling to James I than the death of Duncan, due to James’ personal connection and interest in Banquo and will, therefore, care about his death at the hands of Macbeth.

This plotline is significant as Shakespeare made a change from the original version of Macbeth: His original source material of Macbeth (called the Holinshed Chronicles) has been changed by Shakespeare for this very reason. Originally, Banquo was portrayed as the co-conspirator of Macbeth and was involved in the murder. Shakespeare changed this story line to flatter Banquo and thus James I, who believed he was the descendant of Banquo. By presenting Banquo favorably, Shakespeare is showing support and praise for James. He needed to make the play enjoyable to the king and thereby win him as a patron – support his play company and win his political support against Puritans trying to ban theatre.

Shakespeare also needed to demonstrate his belief in James’ claim to the throne and the ‘Divine Right of Kings’, and show he is not a threat to James’ post-gunpowder plot. He was initially connected to the plotters – William Catesby (father of main plotter Robert Catesby) close friends with Shakespeare’s father and people had been executed for lesser connections. Actors / playwrights were naturally suspected of crimes – moved around a lot and no fixed home or workplace – so were not accountable for.

Banquo serves as a dramatic device – to act as Macbeth’s foil and highlight his moral weakness through juxtaposition – but also as a political device to simultaneously entertain the king and demonstrate Shakespeare’s loyalty and support.

Question 57

Q

What is the significance of Banquo being murdered?

Answer

A

Banquo’s death marks the breakdown in Macbeth’s marriage, and Lady Macbeth’s mental deterioration increases. They start to distance from one another after this point as Lady Macbeth disapproves of Banquo’s murder “you must leave this” and thus Macbeth stops involving her in his plans.

Macbeth starts acting independently of his wife, as she is no longer necessary and is redundant. Lady Macbeth has lost her reason to be evil and powerful – she can’t support her husband. She gives in to her guilt as her conscience starts to take over and she goes insane.

Macbeth and Lady Macbeth develop in reverse directions. Macbeth becomes more like how Lady Macbeth was formerly, while Lady Macbeth becomes more like Macbeth was. This is therefore a reversal of gender roles and the point at which Macbeth cannot return to virtue, which is evidenced through the extended metaphor: “I am in blood stepp’d in so far that should I wade no further, returning were as tedious as to go o’er” - here the metaphor of wading through “blood” is symbolic of guilt. Macbeth was a reluctant killer, tempted by Lady Macbeth and the witches. He felt regret and recognised the injustice of Duncan’s death - “wake Duncan with thy knocking, I would thou couldst”. Before, he was killing only to speed up the prophecy. However, now he is killing despite it. He is attempting to change it. Shakespeare does this to portray his greed – what he has will never be enough, he will never feel secure. Thus he will keep doing evil because “things bad begun make strong themselves by ill”.

Question 58

Q

Significance of Banquo’s Ghost?

Answer

A

After being killed by Macbeth in the scene before, Banquo reappears as a ghost at a Banquet held by Macbeth and his wife; however, he is only visible to Macbeth. This, along with the floating dagger, enables Macbeth’s paranoid mind even more. Banquo’s ghost appears and disappears three times, increasing the chaotic state of Macbeth’s thinking.

Question 59

Q

What is Banquo’s relationship like with other people?

Answer

A

Macbeth | Initially, Macbeth and Banquo are portrayed as having a very strong and loyal friendship due to their many years serving beside each other in battle. However, this relationship is tested when the two characters meet the Witches. From then on, Banquo is skeptical of their prophecies whereas Macbeth is not, causing a division and setting up Banquo as Macbeth’s foil for the rest of the play. Banquo has always been overshadowed by Macbeth’s victories. In Act Three, murderers were instructed by Macbeth to kill Banquo, and Banquo’s ghost then appears to haunt Macbeth.

EXAM TIP!
You will develop your AO2 for characterisation, if you are able to include a direct comparison between the characters of Macbeth and Banquo.

The Witches | Banquo is suspicious of the Witches and their prophecies from when he and Macbeth first meet them in Act One Scene Three. They create friction between Banquo and Macbeth by telling them that whilst Macbeth will become King, Banquo’s children will also become kings which in turn makes Macbeth suspicious of Banquo.

Fleance | (Banquo’s son) Banquo appears to have a very protective and affectionate attitude towards his son, instructing him to “fly, good Fleance, fly, fly, fly” (A3S3) when it is apparent he is under attack from Macbeth (who thinks Fleance will become king eventually, due to the Witches’ prophecies, and therefore is a threat). He manages to escape, but comes back at the end of the play to avenge his father and take the throne of Scotland, with the help of MacDuff.

Question 60

Q

Shakespeare uses metaphorical language and supernatural imagery as Banquo proclaims “the earth hath bubbles” and questions “have we eaten on the insane root?”.

What does this quote suggest?

Answer

A

This quote demonstrates how Banquo works to distance himself from the witches whilst Macbeth aligns himself with them.

○ The contemporary audience would recognise the witches as a force of evil and thus favour Banquo.

○ While a modern audience would perhaps view the Witches as humorous, due to the lack of a belief in witches’ existence.

Question 61

Q

Banquo asks the witches to “speak then to me” as he wants to know what the “seeds of time” have in store for him.

Answer

A

This demonstrates that though Banquo is interested by the prophecy and does show his own ambition, the ambition he possesses is not as strong as Macbeth’s (or he tries to disguise it).

● In this situation, he remains composed and in control as he states “neither beg nor fear your favours nor your hate”.

○ This reveals that Banquo is a very moralistic and responsible character who is not easily led astray.

○ This juxtaposes Macbeth’s response, who commands the Witches to “stay, you imperfect speakers“ , revealing his desperation.

Both Macbeth, who describes the witches as “imperfect”, and Banquo have recognised the witches as unnatural and evil, yet Macbeth chooses to ignore this because he wants to believe their prophecies.

● However, the Witches’ prophecy prompts the question: why does Banquo save his son? He tells Fleance to “fly” – but also “thou mayst avenge”. Therefore, it is clear that he wants Fleance to avenge his death and perhaps kill Macbeth or to take the crown and therefore fulfill the prophecy.

● Earlier in the play, the father-son relationship is not depicted as being close or loving, as Shakespeare employs the formal language of “boy” and “sir”, rather than ‘father’ or ‘son’. Here, he makes the audience question whether his sacrifice is out of love, or out of ambition.

Question 62

Q

“noble Banquo”, “worthy Banquo”, “no less deserv’d“ , “wisdom that doth guide his valour“ and a “royalty of nature“ .

What does this quote suggest?

Answer

A

Banquo is repeatedly referred to as being noble and honourable throughout the play.

● Shakespeare thus makes it clear that he is widely regarded as such and there should be no doubt to his loyalty. Yet, in Shakespeare’s play ‘Othello’ the antagonist Iago is similarly known to be honest and honourable - yet is anything but these qualities.

Question 63

Q

The Witches predict Banquo being “lesser than Macbeth and greater”.

What does this quote suggest?

Answer

A

This becomes true: In status, he is lesser (sir) but he is morally superior, with a stronger will. He remained loyal to the kind and obedient to God and the ‘Great Chain of Being’ and therefore he will have a greater afterlife.

Question 64

Q

“the instruments of darkness tell us truths; win us with honest trifles to betray’s in deepest consequence“ . - Banquo

What does this suggest?

Answer

A

Here, Banquo is referring to the Witches as being “the instruments of darkness”. Unlike Macbeth, who is refusing to see the potential consequences of believing in the prophecies, Banquo is aware that there is likely a trap involved in the predictions.

Answer 65

A

The contemporary audience widely believed that the devil existed on earth and walked amongst humans trying to tempt them. Thus, the witches can be seen as a symbol of temptation to sin that Banquo, as a moral superior, is able to resist. Macbeth being crowned as the Thane of Cawdor gives credibility to the Witches’ prophecy and makes it seem like they will come true.

● Macbeth responds with additional ambition: “yield to that suggestion”, while Banquo recognises it is a trick as he states “the instruments of darkness tell us truths; win us with honest trifles to betray’s in deepest consequence”.

○ Banquo recognises that this is temptation, and giving into it will have severe (religious) consequences.

● His suspicion doesn’t protect him from death, but it protects him from moral and religious disgrace.

○ Will still die in God’s favour as he resisted sin.

Answer 66

A

One of Banquo’s functions in the play is
to operate as a foil to Macbeth. A foil is a character who contrasts another character,
usually the protagonist, to highlight certain things about them.
In many ways, Shakespeare presents Banquo as similar to Macbeth. Both are captains in
the army, referred to by Duncan as ‘Our captains, Macbeth and Banquo’ in Act 1 Scene
2. Both are brave warriors, as explained by the sergeant in the same scene, who tells
of how ‘they were / As cannons overcharged with double cracks’. Both are well respected
– in Act 1 Scene 4 Duncan refers to Banquo as ‘Noble’ – the same word used two
scenes earlier to describe Macbeth. However, where the characters really differ is in their
actions following meeting the witches in Act 1 Scene 3.
Macbeth receives three prophecies, which include the statement that he will one day be king,
and Banquo receives one: that although he won’t be a king, his descendants will be.
The witches prophesy to both Macbeth and Banquo, but Banquo is sceptical and wary, telling
the witches that he does ‘neither beg nor fear / Your favours or your hate’. Macbeth’s
reaction is very different. When the witches prophecy he will one day be king, Banquo asks
Macbeth ‘why do you start’ Meaning why are you so startled? The reaction of Macbeth
is all the more notable when compared to that of Banquo.
Despite the fact that both of these men, of equal position in the social hierarchy, receive
prophecies from the ‘weird sisters’, only Macbeth takes matters into his own hands and
embarks on his bloody campaign of violence. Banquo doesn’t succumb to the prophecies
in the same way as Macbeth because he doesn’t have the same hamartia or fatal flaw (see
my character analysis on Macbeth for more about that). It appears that Banquo is not
ambitious in the way that Macbeth is. Shakespeare’s source material for the play
was Holinshed’s Chronicles, a history book in which there is a re-telling of the true
story of King Macbeth of Scotland. But Shakespeare’s play differs from Holinshed when it comes
to the character of Banquo who, in the source material, was part of the plot to kill the
king. Shakespeare alters this in his own play to paint Banquo in a positive light, possibly
because it was believed that King James I was a descendant of Banquo. Remember, Banquo’s
prophecy was that his descendants would be kings. Shakespeare’s own king was said to
be one of these. In this light, Banquo would have to be presented in a sympathetic manner
by Shakespeare. However, there is another way to look at the
character of Banquo. In Act 2 Scene 1, Banquo asks his son Fleance
to ‘take my sword’. He admits he does not want to go to sleep, because of the ‘cursed
thoughts’ he’s been having. What are these cursed thoughts? Well, a few moments later
Banquo informs the newly arrived Macbeth ‘I dreamt last night of the three weird sisters’.
When we put all this together, could it be that Banquo gave his sword to Fleance because
he couldn’t trust himself not to do something evil with it?
Shortly after the murder of King Duncan, Banquo remarks that Macbeth has it all now, but fears
that he played ‘most foully for’t’. This is an acknowledgement that Banquo suspects
Macbeth. But why does Banquo not sound the alarm? Why does he not raise objections or
even refuse to support the new king, like Macduff does? A line in the previous Act gives
us a good idea. In Act 2 Scene 1 Macbeth tells Banquo that
he should ‘cleave to my consent’ (meaning ‘stay loyal to me’) and when the time
comes it will work out well for him. Banquo’s response is very vague and he simply says
that, so long as he loses no honour by doing so, he will. So Banquo believes he stands
to gain from Macbeth’s position as king, and this is perhaps why he keeps his thoughts
to himself about the evil acts his friend has committed.
Ultimately, however, Banquo’s resistance to evil and his goodness are what cost him
his life. When Macbeth agonises over the decision to kill his friend he refers to Banquo’s
‘wisdom that doth guide his valour’ in Act 3 Scene 1. Macbeth is acknowledging that
the thing he fears most about Banquo is his good and wise nature. Many critics observe
that Macbeth, representing evil and Banquo, representing good, cannot exist together – only
one can survive. Whether Shakespeare was simply rewriting the
history books in order to please King James I or rewriting his source material to tell
an even better story, Banquo is a character that is often misunderstood in terms of his
complexity. He is good where Macbeth is evil, and he leaves things up to chance where Macbeth
takes fate into his own hands. The character of Banquo complements Macbeth insofar as he
highlights Macbeth’s downfall but Banquo himself is no angel. His actions and his indecision
in the face of treason paint him out to be a more complex character that we may imagine.
Perhaps Shakespeare is allowing for the fact that nobody is perfect, no person is all good
or all evil but the conflict within Macbeth that leads him to evil deeds appears to have
the opposite result in Banquo, yet more evidence of Shakespeare’s fascination with complex
characters, contrasts and opposites.

Answer 67

A

Macduff, the Thane of Fife, is Macbeth’s deadly enemy. He discovers Duncan’s body and becomes Malcolm’s chief supporter, following him to England to support him in raising an army against Macbeth. When he learns of the murders of his wife and family, Macduff feels guilty about leaving them and driven by a need for revenge.

According to the Witches’ prediction, Macduff is the only one who can stop Macbeth. The two men meet face-to-face on the battlefield and Macduff kills Macbeth.

Answer 68

A

Macduff

SYMBOLISES ULTIMATE LOYALTY

INTRODUCTION

Macduff is, essentially, a minor character. However, he is, arguably, the most prominent minor character in the play. Macduff is a static character, in that his loyalty to King Duncan, and righteous heirs to the throne, is unwavering. He immediately distrusts Macbeth and refuses to attend his coronation. Ultimately, Macduff becomes a focal point for Macbeth’s rage and desire to protect his throne. Macduff’s family is murdered by Macbeth’s assassins, after Macduff flees to England to seek help from the king. Revenge drives Macbeth to eventually kill Macbeth and instill Malcolm, the rightful heir to the throne.

SYMBOLISM

Macduff is, in every way, the opposite to the character of Macbeth and therefore they are the foil of each other. It is important to consider why Shakespeare portrays Macduff as in stark contrast to that of the character of Macbeth. These two characters extend to the symbols of the fight between good and evil. Arguably, these characters may also have a Biblical symbolism – a representation of sin being defeated and order restored.

➔ Defeating Macbeth is Macbeth’s destiny, as Macduff suspected him from the start and the Witches prophesied that a “man of woman born” would defeat him.

➔ He has the opposite definition of manhood to Macbeth, as Macduff doesn’t resist emotion but embraces it.

➔ His bravery is selfless and out of a love for his country; violence is for a justified cause (not murder) and it is only proportional to what is needed. He is confident in facing Macbeth, as he calls to him “turn hell hound, turn”, demonstrating that he is not afraid to fight Macbeth, as Macduff has righteousness on his side. His true bravery exposes Macbeth’s cowardice.

➔ Macbeth’s confidence and bravery comes from hubris (excessive pride), due to the witches’ prophecies that state only a “man of woman born” could defeat him. Thus, it is clear that Macbeth has been a coward since Act 1: he killed Duncan in his sleep, he killed Banquo with murderers. Macduff’s bravery is pure and honourable and therefore succeeds in killing Macbeth in battle.

Character in Context

Religious Context

Macduff’s reaction to Duncan’s death is a long hyperbolic speech, where he uses religious language to show his belief in the ‘Divine Right of Kings’. This shows Macduff to be adhering to the religious, moralistic thoughts of the historical period.

Macduff uses metaphorical language to describe Duncan’s death: “most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope the lord’s anointed temple”. His body is referred to as a “temple” in order to reinforce the holiness of Duncan’s reign. He recognises Duncan as the true, divinely ordained, king; the “Lord’s temple” and thus God’s earthly deputy. Kings are anointed with holy oil at their coronation to signify this.

➔ Hence the murder is not just a crime (murder), it is an unforgivable sin against God, which is “sacrilegious” and unholy - tantamount (equivalent) to the murder of God himself.

In the Jacobean era it was believed that God picked who was to be king, therefore to try and change who was king was a sin as you were going directly against God’s will. This is similar to the Biblical fall of man in the Garden of Eden, as Adam disobeyed God’s orders. Macduff emphasises this belief that the king is divinely ordained and is therefore loyal to him. He associated Duncan with piety and virtue as he is aligned with God.

➔ He also recognises that the murder will have greater consequences for Scotland as he states “see the great doom’s image”, which is a reference to judgment day. This suggests that he sees the death of the king as comparable to the end of the world – complete loyalty and devotion, or that perhaps, ending a divine bloodline’s right to the throne would enrage God. The natural order has been disturbed and thus chaos will ensue, like at the end of the world.

Answer 69

A

Sensitive: Macduff differs from the other male characters in the play; he publically

exhibits emotional behaviour, something which was considered a femenine trait at the time. Macduff’s violence is not dangerous like Macbeth’s as it comes from love for his country and family; it is “grief convert to anger”. This is demonstrated through the very emotional reaction to the death of his family.

○ Macduff believes that Macbeth must have “no children” to explain how he can live with a guilty conscience of killing Macduff’s children. This also means that there is no way for Macbeth to receive retribution, as Maduff has no way to deliver a pain equal to having his own children killed. Nothing Macduff can do will truly pay for this pain – not even killing Macbeth; losing family is a greater pain than death.

○ Macduff’s disbelief is evidenced through Shakespeare’s use of many rhetorical questions and the repetition of questions he has already asked: “all my pretty ones?” “my children too?” “my wife kill’d too?”. These reveal his flabbergasted state as he cannot imagine that someone could even do that. This contrasts to Macbeth, as his selfish ambition is put before all else, including emotional sensitivity and morals.

● Patriotic: Shakespeare portrays Macbeth as a man who adores Scotland and feels as though he must save it from the tyranny of Macbeth’s rule. He is the one to recognise that Macbeth’s reign brings chaos to Scotland and sets about creating an opposition to Macbeth.

○ Macduff uses the motif of personifying Scotland, as Macbeth is causing Scotland to “bleed bleed poor country”. Shakespeare uses this technique in order to symbolise how Scotland is dying because the ‘Great Chain of Being’ has been subverted.

■ The ‘Great Chain of Being’ is a hierarchical social structure, which dictated who had authority over who (the King was at the top of the hierarchy, just under God).

○ Shakespeare evidences Macduff’s care for all of Scotland through the use of parallelism as “new widows howl, new orphans cry” demonstrates that Macduff is considering the detrimental effects of Macbeth’s reign, holistically (as a whole). Hence he left his own wife and children to try and save the women and children of the whole country. This contrasts Macbeth, as Macduff acts for the good of others, not the good of himself. While Macbeth’s allegiance is to himself and his wife, Macduff’s is to Scotland.

Answer 70

A

Malcolm | Both Malcom and Macduff hold an immense amount of loyalty and patriotism towards their country, and this is crucial as it leads to Macbeth’s removal from the throne. Malcom tests Macduff’s loyalty in the play, which Macduff succeeds in and hence proves to the audience that Macduff is a character to be trusted.

Macbeth | Macduff is eventually the character who kills Macbeth in the play.

EXAM TIP!
You will develop your AO2 for characterisation, if you are able to

include a direct comparison between the characters of Macbeth and Macduff.

Ross | Ross is part of the army which eventually overthrows Macbeth, and is a Thane. He is the one who tells Macduff that Macbeth has murdered his family. He serves as a character who delivers news both to the characters and audience in the play, and Macduff is part of this deliverance.

King Duncan | Macduff shows great loyalty to King Duncan, and is the character who finds him dead after Macbeth murders him.

Answer 71

A

Only moments after Macbeth has killed King
Duncan, in Act 2 Scene 2, there is a knock on the door, a knock which continues through
the porter’s comical speech in the next scene until the door is opened to reveal Lennox
alongside a new character the audience has yet to meet: that of Macduff. Shakespeare’s
use of structure is significant here: it is Macduff who arrives moments after the king
has been killed, and it is Macduff who will ultimately avenge that king’s murder by
cutting off the head of Macbeth. One way of understanding the character of
Macduff is as a foil to Macbeth. A foil is a character who contrasts another character,
usually the protagonist, to highlight certain things about them. As we saw in the Banquo
video, Banquo too operates as a foil to Macbeth. However, Banquo is killed in Act 3, and Shakespeare
then seems to select another character to fill his position as foil. Although Macduff
first appears in Act 2, his role as foil is most notable when Banquo is no longer around.
If we consider that Macbeth turns his back, through selfish greed, on the established
system and traditions of his country by killing the King and claiming the crown for himself,
then Macduff does the complete opposite. He sacrifices everything he has – his wife,
his children, his castle – to see the rightful heir on the throne and restore the balance
and equilibrium in his country. Through Macduff, the audience sees the correct choices and
actions that should be taken by a good subject. When Macduff travels to England in Act 4 Scene
3 to meet with Malcolm to get his support to remove Macbeth from the throne, he reveals
his deep concern about his country and the way it’s going. Speaking to Malcolm, he
says ‘Bleed, bleed, poor country!’, and later he says ‘O Scotland, Scotland!’.
Shakespeare’s use of repetition in both of these lines highlight the strength of Macduff’s
emotions here: it is clear that Macduff’s loyalties lie with his nation. Macduff isn’t
willing to sacrifice his country simply to give Malcolm the throne either. When Malcolm,
in an effort to test Macduff, lists all of his ‘vices’, Macduff is willing to overlook
his desire for women and riches but when Malcolm says that if he had power he would ‘Pour
the sweet milk of concord into hell’ and ‘confound / All unity on earth’, Macduff
says that not only is Malcolm not ‘Fit to govern’ but he’s ‘not to live’.
In this scene Shakespeare presents the audience with the ideal version of the royal subject.
He is willing to sacrifice all that he has to maintain the system but, ultimately, loyalty
to his nation is his number one priority. Macduff’s dedication and commitment to his
country and his ‘real’ king makes Macbeth’s disregard for it stand out all the more.
When Macbeth and Lady Macbeth carry out their deeds, they repeatedly call on heaven to look
away or for light to be put out so they can’t be seen. It’s an acknowledgement that what
they are doing is wrong. There can be few things worse than regicide. When Macduff is
informed in Act 4 Scene 3 that his family has been murdered at the order of Macbeth,
he swears revenge. Interestingly, he invokes heaven and brings the idea of God and heaven
into his quest. He says, ‘… gentle heavens,/ Cut short all intermission; front to front/Bring
thou this fiend of Scotland and myself;/Within my sword’s length set him; if he ‘scape/Heaven
forgive him too!’. Here, Macduff is secure in the knowledge that
his desire for revenge is righteous. He asks ‘gentle heavens’ to bring Macbeth before
his sword so he can deal with him. Malcolm too invokes heaven when he responds to Macduff
telling him Macbeth is ‘ripe for the shaking, and the powers above/ Put on their instruments’.
The suggestion here is that they are righteous and that theirs is somehow a holy war against
Macbeth. Macduff and Malcolm are on the side of God and heaven. All of this confirms the
idea that Macduff is an idealised version of the royal subject, deployed to expose and
highlight Macbeth’s worst excesses. It’s no coincidence that, at the end of
the play, it is Macduff who kills Macbeth. If Macduff is the perfect subject and Macbeth
is to be viewed as an example of where selfish ambition can take you, then Shakespeare makes
a very obvious claim for tradition and upholding the system through the last interaction between
the two in Act 5 Scene 8. As Clarence Boyer explains in ‘The Villain
as Hero in Elizabethan Tragedy’
‘It would be unthinkable for Malcom to defeat [Macbeth] – Malcolm who fled the country
on the first report of his father’s death: he has neither the physical strength nor the
spirit to conquer the tyrant; it would be distressing if he did so. Macduff is the only
man whose suffering has been portrayed as no less keen than Macbeth’s…Moreover,
he is represented as noble, courageous, and absolutely incorruptible; the only man Macbeth’s
equal in bravery.’
And this is a key point to highlight: when Macduff kills Macbeth, Macduff is himself
committing regicide– the same crime Macbeth committed when he killed Duncan. However,
the murder of Macduff’s wife and children is enough to convince the audience that this
is justified. Macbeth at first is reluctant to fight Macduff
because he feels that his ‘soul is too much charged’ with Macduff’s family blood already
– a reference to the slaughter of Macduff’s family. But Macduff, following the lead of
Lady Macbeth, calls him a ‘coward’ in order to bait him into doing something he
said he didn’t want to do and it works. Macbeth, in his final few lines says, ‘I
will not yield,/To kiss the ground before young Malcolm’s feet’ something any good
subject would be happy to do. It is clear then that Macbeth and Macduff
are broadly similar. They are both noble lords and they both take fate into their own hands
– Macbeth to claim the crown and Macduff, travelling to England to restore the rightful
heir. Macbeth’s actions are all prompted by selfishness, greed and personal ambition
whereas Macduff’s actions are prompted by his love for both his country and the rightful
king.

Answer 72

A

Although there is clearly more than one of them, the Witches may be seen as seem as a single character; they are often referred to as “The Weird Sisters”.

Their predictions drive matters forward though they never actually suggest direct action. Rather, they plant ideas in Macbeth’s mind and let his ambition do the rest. Many of their predictions are ambiguous.

Answer 73

A

The Witches

SYMBOLISES PURE EVIL & DARKNESS

INTRODUCTION

The Witches are commonly referred to as the “weird sisters” or the “Wayward sisters”, depending on the version of the text that you read (due to discrepancies between Shakespearean English and the modern form). Shakespeare portrays these Witches as supernatural beings, who give Macbeth many cryptic prophecies; they predict that he will become “Thane of Cawdor”, then that he will “get kings” and finally that he shall not be “vanquished” until “Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill / Shall come against him.”

Shakespeare introduces the Witches in the first
scene of the play, thus giving special emphasis to their importance. Shakespeare’s use of parallelism in the paradoxical phrase “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” foreshadows the rest of the play.

Shakespeare refers to the Witches as the Weird Sisters (depending on the version that you read), which bears connotations of “wired” meaning fate in Old English and therefore associating their speech with prophecy. The witches could represent the three fates from classical mythology, as the three fates represent the past, present and future. This reflects the three predictions they give to Macbeth, as they claim to “spin the threads of life”. The three Witches have differing roles as one spins, one measures, one cuts. This relates to their roles in the future, present and past, respectively. Shakespeare suggests they are in control of events, as they decide on the fates and destinies of men - or perhaps they lead them to their fate.

SYMBOLISM

● Supernatural: The inclusion of ‘magical’ creatures is contextually significant as the contemporary audience was interested in, believed in and was fearful of witches. The monarch at the time of writing in the early 17th Century was James I, who wrote the book ‘Daemonologie’ which explained how to identify a witch and how to tourture them. These witches would be seen as a very real and genuine threat to the contemporary audience, who actually believed that witches lived amongst them and are more than a fictional fantasy.

Answer 74

A

CHARACTER IN CONTEXT

Appealing to James I

Shakespeare uses the character of the Witches in order to appeal to the current monarch James I, who had a passion for the history of witchcraft. It is important to understand how Shakespeare portrays the Witches in an appealing fashion.

James I’s passion for witches is evident as he was involved in many witch trials (e.g. North Berwick Witch Trials), where he took part in interrogating a witch. He also believed they had tried to kill him on the way to the trials and therefore
the portrayal of the Witches as inherently evil and

agents of Satan appeals to James I. He wrote a book about witches – ‘Daemonologie’. Through connecting witches to regicide Shakespeare is clearly demonstrating that witchcraft is infernal and thus Shakespeare is evidencing his allegiance to the king and gaining his favour through this play.

Shakespeare also has the motive of wanting to
make the play interesting to James so that he will
financially support the theatre and ensure
patronage (ascending from the Lord Chamberlain’s
men to The King’s Men, under James I).
Shakespeare had been very reliant on Elizabeth’s
patronage previously in protection from puritans
trying to ban the theatre. Perhaps this could be why
there are so many religious references. In order to
prove that theatre is not sinful and can actually
serve to accompany the messages of the bible and
even reinforce them. This is shown through Macbeth’s fall from grace as he succumbs to the temptation of the Witches.

Regicide

Shakespeare condemns regicide through his portrayal of Macbeth and the mental torment it causes him. You can consider why Shakespeare wanted to exhibit the evil nature of regicide in the contemporary context. Through presenting regicide as inspired or even controlled by the Witches, Shakespeare implies it is related to the devil and hence regicide will have severe religious consequences. This act is directly contradicting the will of God as the divine right of kings is subverted through regicide.

Furthermore, Macbeth is aligned with forces of supernatural evil within the play. He is evidence that association with the supernatural will always result in suffering and severe consequences.

This is also evident through Shakespeare’s portrayal of Lady Macbeth, who is driven insane. The Witches’ direct influence upon the Macbeths is evidenced through the link between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s lack of sleep and also the Witches’ proclamation that “sleep shall neither night nor day, hang upon his penthouse lid”. This could be the Witches preventing sleep, as this lack of sleep will cause Macbeth to waste away and deteriorate as a result of this curse.

Bible

The Bible forms a great deal of references made in Macbeth, as the Witches subvert the holiness of Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism were the mainstream contemporary religions). It is important to consider why Shakespeare portrays the Witches as symbolising the perceived evil within the Bible.

The audience perceives the Witches as agents of the devil, as stated in King James I’s ‘Daemonologie’, which theorised that the witches carried out the work of the devil and were

controlled by him. Therefore they are the devil’s influence on earth, carrying out the work that is beyond his capability. Hence, regicide is the work of the devil.

They act as part of the fall of man, in causing him to succumb to temptation – like the serpent in the Garden of Eden. The Witches form an anti-trinity - as they always appear in a three they form a trinity of evil. This opposes and contradicts the trinity of the Father, the Sun and the Holy Ghost, who according to the Bible, comprise “one God in three Divine persons”. Thus it could be contended that the three Witches comprise the Devil in three infernal persons. Macbeth turns to them in times of need (when worried after Banquo’s death) for advice and comfort instead of to God. He has transitioned from good to evil – from “fair to foul”.

Key Characteristics

Supernatural

The structure of the Witches’ speech emphasises their supernatural characteristics. The rhythmic and chant-like nature of the Witches’ rhetoric implies that their words have real extraordinary power. Shakespeare, through linguistic techniques, uses this as symbolic of the supernatural and to connect other characters to the supernatural. This is evident as Macbeth and Lady Macbeth also speak in rhyming couplets at times when they are expressing evil or when they are controlled by the supernatural. For example, Macbeth says: “stars hide your fires // let not light see my black and deep desires” and “fairest show // false face must hide what false heart doth know“ .

Trochaic Tetrameter
Shakespeare uses trochaic tetrameter when the Witches’ speak. The audience will notice this shift in meter between the characters and place importance on what is being said. This causes the witches to stand out as different and other-worldly, as this is a difficult and unnatural way to speak, causing them to be perceived as supernatural and dangerous.

➔ This meter is also used for the fairies in ‘A Midsummer’s Night Dream’.

Rhyming Couplets
Shakespeare’s use of rhyming couplets gives the Witches’ speech a spell-like sound as is symbolic of spell casting and bringing things into existence through their utterances. This sets up the debate as to whether the Witches are really controlling events or if they are in actuality leading Macbeth into his own demise.

Answer 75

A

Macbeth | The Witches are dependent on Macbeth to fulfill their prophecies. It was believed that witches were unable to directly kill man so instead they had to control others to create the disorder and chaos they wished to impart on mankind.

➔ The Witches refer to a story about a sailor. The rhyming couplet “Though his bark cannot be lost, / Yet it shall be tempest-tossed,” shows the audience the limited power they have over man. They cannot directly destroy his ship, but instead they can cause a storm to occur.

The Witches can’t kill Duncan themselves but instead they have the power to influence the men around him. It could therefore be argued that Macbeth becomes their puppet and vehicle for evil. Their prophecies cause Macbeth to realise his own entrenched ambitions and then inspire him to act upon it. It is their suggestion and temptation that triggers his fall.
➔ Perhaps Macbeth is a greater force of evil than the Witches as he is the one who physically carries out the act of regicide. Indeed, they recognise “something wicked this way comes”.

However, you could argue that the Witches are simply a catalyst for Macbeth’s actions, it is his desire to fulfill his ambition for power which provides the momentum within the play. Perhaps, Macbeth had the potential to sin, but needed the suggestion in order to persuade him into acting. Therefore it can be said that Macbeth had the intent all along, but needed the Witches to enlighten him of it. The Witches sparked confidence within him so that he could do it and succeed.

The notion of regicide already existed within Macbeth’s mind and he sustains it himself, rather than the Witches planting this entirely new concept in Macbeth’s head. Therefore, Shakespeare’s play is more of an exploration of the psychological state of Macbeth, rather than an exploration of the supernatural. This prompts the interpretation that the Witches only predicted events rather than causing them and deciding fate. Duncan had already decided that Macbeth would be Thane of Cawdor, before they told Macbeth

Duncan | Though they never meet, King Duncan linguistically echoes the witches in speech (unwittingly) as he exclaims “when the battle’s lost and won”, which is Shakespeare using parallelism (repeated grammatical structure) to echo the Witches, who state “what he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won”. This shows how the witches exert control over all aspects of the world – even the king.

Furthermore, this alleviates responsibility from Macbeth as suspicions of King Duncan’s divineness is not necessarily only due to innate evil that the Witches have encouraged within him. Duncan is presented as the pinnacle of virtue as he is “so clear in his great office”, yet he is still susceptible to the witches control as shown by this use of parallelism.

Banquo | Banquo is also affected by the Witches, as he admits to dreaming of the witches: “I dreamed last night of the three weird sisters”. However, this occurs on the same day that Banquo met the Witches, prompting the question - had he been thinking of them before they met? Were Macbeth and Banquo already connected to the supernatural?

This dream shows that they have influenced Banquo too, however he serves as evidence that the witches can be resisted and they do not have complete control as they give him a prophecy too, which he ignores. This response from Banquo is necessary for his character as he serves as the foil to Macbeth and to embrace the Witches would go against the purpose of his character.

Lady Macbeth | Lady Macbeth can be interpreted as a fourth witch, of perhaps an even greater evil. It is important to understand why Shakespeare portrays Lady Macbeth as similar to the Witches. She lapses into rhyming couplets when trying to persuade Macbeth to commit regicide and evil deeds. This linguistic mimic of the Witches’ form of speech connects her to their inherent evil. Lady Macbeth uses paradoxical rhyming couplets which bear connotations of both evil and the Witches, including: “only look up clear; to alter favour ever is to fear”, “alls spent” “without content” , and “that which we destroy” “doubtful joy”

Lady Macbeth defies gender roles as she is dominant in her relationship with Macbeth, which was often all the justification needed to convict a woman of witchcraft. She becomes the proxy of the witches to maintain their evil influence over Macbeth.

➔ This is shown as she greets him in the same way as the witches did which implies a form of connection:

◆ Lady Macbeth - “Great Glamis, worthy Cawdor, greater than both by the all hail hereafter”.

◆ The Witches “hail Macbeth thane of Glamis/Cawdor/thou shalt be king hereafter”

Lady Macbeth’s ongoing influence on Macbeth could be why, unlike Banquo, he is unable to resist the Witches’ influence. Macbeth has many moments when he is decided to resist evil and not murder Duncan. But this reluctance causes him to be emasculated by Lady Macbeth - she is outraged, calls him a coward and questions his manhood: “When you durst do it,” she says, “then you were a man” . This tempts Macbeth back into murder as he does not want to be seen as feminine.

Answer 76

A

In this video we’ll take a brief look at each appearance, considering what we learn
about these so called ‘weird sisters’. Shakespeare’s use of structure, with his
decision to open the play with the witches, suggests that they will take a significant
role in Macbeth. Act 1 Scene 1 is the first time the audience gets to see the witches,
and we are invited into a mysterious world made all the more enigmatic by the fact that
we arrive at the end of whatever it is they have been doing. The first line we hear is
‘When shall we three meet again?’ Their meeting is complete and whatever they were
up to, we can only guess. Shakespeare is clever in his construction here, prompting our curiosity
about what role the witches will take in the play. The structural decision to start with
the witches suggests that their role will be significant, but the fact that we have
missed the focus of their meeting leaves the audience unsure of what to think of them.
The witches introduce the theme of the supernatural which, in Jacobean times, would have been
a big draw for audiences because there was a huge amount of interest (and belief) in
witchcraft. Practising witchcraft was a crime punishable by death in Shakespeare’s time,
and during the Jacobean era King James is estimated to have been responsible for the
burning of 4,000 alleged witches in Scotland alone. King James actually wrote a book on
the subject (‘Daemonologie’), so beginning the play with this scene is therefore not
only a good way to grab the interest of the audience but also of the king, an important
source of revenue. Something interesting to note here is that
ideas about witchcraft changed quite rapidly in England. Macbeth was first performed in
1606. Writing in 1745 about the play, Samuel Johnson explained that:
‘In order to make a true estimate of the abilities and merit of a writer, it is always
necessary to examine the genius of his age, and the opinions of his contemporaries. A
poet who should now make the whole action of his tragedy depend upon enchantment, and
produce the chief events by the assistance of supernatural agents, would be censured
as transgressing the bounds of probability, he would be banished from the theatre to the
nursery, and condemned to write fairy tales instead of tragedies.’
In other words, just under 140 years after the play was first produced, audiences found
the idea of witches and spells laughable – much like we do today. And the 1735 witchcraft
act reduced the penalty for practising witchcraft from death to a maximum of one year in prison.
This law change reflected a shift from actual belief in witchcraft to punishing those who
made a pretence of having special powers. That’s the genius of Shakespeare: he taps
into contemporary obsessions and ideas to make his work relevant to his audience. But
make no mistake: when it was first produced, the witches and their incantations would have
been shocking to an audience. Shakespeare also uses form to set the witches
apart from other characters. Whilst all of the nobles in Macbeth speak in iambic pentameter,
with unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables, the form used by the witches is
trochaic meter, with stressed syllables followed by unstressed syllables. For example:
Fair is foul, and foul is fair (I’ve put the stressed syllables in bold)
Now this use of trochaic meter heightens a sense of the witches’ otherworldliness and
makes them stand out from the rest of the characters, emphasising their wickedness.
Perhaps the biggest topic open for debate when it comes to the witches is just how much
power they possess – for example do they make Macbeth kill King Duncan, or was he was
going to do it anyway? This was a topic explored in a 2010 Oxford University lecture by Dr
Emma Smith. Smith points out that whilst In Act 1 Scene
1 the witches seem to know what is happening (‘When the battle’s lost and won’) and
also where to meet Macbeth, ‘upon the heath’. the question raised is does that mean they’re
able to draw him to them, or simply they know where he will be. Do they have the power of
direction, to make things happen, or the power of prophecy, to predict the future?
For Smith, Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony is key in suggesting that the witches
aren’t as powerful as they might first appear to be.
When the witches prophesy to Macbeth, in Act 1 Scene 3, that he will become Thane of Cawdor,
it’s the first he’s heard of it, and so when he’s told of the promotion shortly
after by Ross, it could very well appear to Macbeth that the witches made it happen. However,
the audience is in a different position. We already know from Act 1 Scene 2 that Duncan
was going to promote Macbeth to Thane of Cawdor. As Smith puts it: To the audience, it seems
much more likely that the witches ‘interpose in a chain of human actions, rather than…direct
actions themselves’. Macbeth might see his promotion to thane of Cawdor as being linked
to the witches, but, Smith argues, an astute audience would judge that Macbeth’s promotion
is a result of a rational political reason- he has been a brave and loyal warrior whereas
Cawdor has been a traitor. This dramatic irony, then, allows the audience to view the witches
as not as powerful as they appear to Macbeth. As if to assist us in drawing this conclusion,
just before this happens, also In Act 1 Scene 3, we see the witches in discussion with each
other, a discussion which reveals the limitations of their power and influence. For example,
the audience finds out that one of the witches has been offended by a woman who wouldn’t
give her chestnuts, and has decided to take it out on the woman’s husband who is a sailor.
We learn that the witch has control over the winds and uses them to disrupt the ship’s
journey. It’s important to note, however, that the witch does not have the power to
take the sailor’s life ‘Though his bark cannot be lost, / yet it shall be tempest-tossed’.
Shakespeare’s use of structure is key here: he deliberately shows the audience the limits
of the witches’ power, so that when Macbeth arrives and is captivated by them, we can
see that his infatuation tells us more about him than it does about the witches.
The witches appear next in Act 3 Scene 5, but many scholars and editors believe that
this scene was not actually written by Shakespeare at all but inserted by actors either to give
themselves more lines or to excite the audience. Much of the evidence for this comes from the
fact that Hecate has so many lines despite not being introduced at any point previously.
It is also said that the witches appear different to when we first met them, even though they
don’t say much at all. Whatever the truth, we learn in this scene that the witches are
subordinate to Hecate, who is angry that they did not consult her first before speaking
to Macbeth. Hecate describes herself as ‘the mistress of your charms’, meaning ‘the
source of all your powers’. Again, the idea of the witches as powerful is undermined here,
as they are essentially reprimanded by their superior.
In Act 4 Scene 1, Macbeth has come looking for reassurance and comfort that what he has
done will keep him on the throne. The witches duly show him three apparitions, which Macbeth
interprets in his own way. These apparitions, while seeming to comfort him, are actually
entirely deceptive and symptomatic of how the witches speak - in riddles and half-truths.
The audience are shown a series of apparitions that are supposed to confirm one thing, but
in fact can be interpreted as the complete opposite. Shakespeare is flagging something
that becomes crucial to the final outcome of the play. He is, in a way, signposting
important details for his audience. The first of the apparitions is the ‘armed
Head’ which literally foretells Macbeth’s eventual decapitation at the hands of Macduff.
Macbeth, however, appears to believe that the head is representative of Macduff, and
seems thankful for having seen it, obviously misunderstanding its true meaning.
The second vision is of the ‘bloody child’, which is, in reality, Macduff. The advice
given to Macbeth is that he should feel completely safe and secure because no one who has been
‘born of woman’ can hurt him. The equivocation here is that the apparition is Macduff and
so clearly, he is alive despite not being born of woman. Macbeth fails to see the deception
here, and reads into the prophecy that he has nothing to fear.
The third vision is of ‘a Child crowned, with a tree in his hand’. This is Malcolm,
Duncan’s son, coming to Macbeth’s castle carrying a branch from a tree. The advice
here again is that Macbeth can’t be harmed until Birnam Wood moves to Dunsinane. Obviously
believing that it is impossible for a forest to move, Macbeth feels even more secure following
this prophecy. Essentially, he has come to the witches for reassurance; they’ve shown
him a vision of the future, and he has read into it what he wants to see.
Before he leaves, however, the witches, on Macbeth’s orders, show him a final vision.
Here he sees a line of ‘eight kings’ who are all descendants of Banquo. This leaves
him in an awful state considering that it means none of his own descendants will inherit
the throne. It’s very curious here that Macbeth sees this and, yet still doesn’t
doubt the earlier visions. It’s clear the witches are playing with him yet, in his state,
he either doesn’t seem to notice or care. And that’s the last time we see the witches
in the play, which in itself is worthy of analysis. If the witches are so powerful,
why do they not appear at all after Act 4 Scene 1? Their impact on-stage is unquestionable
when they do appear there, but the reality is that once the battle starts they are nowhere

Answer 77

A

Hallucinations

Visions and hallucinations recur throughout the play and serve as reminders of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s joint culpability for the growing body count. When he is about to kill Duncan, Macbeth sees a dagger floating in the air. Covered with blood and pointed toward the king’s chamber, the dagger represents the bloody course on which Macbeth is about to embark. Later, he sees Banquo’s ghost sitting in a chair at a feast, pricking his conscience by mutely reminding him that he murdered his former friend. The seemingly hardheaded Lady Macbeth also eventually gives way to visions, as she sleepwalks and believes that her hands are stained with blood that cannot be washed away by any amount of water. In each case, it is ambiguous whether the vision is real or purely hallucinatory; but, in both cases, the Macbeths read them uniformly as supernatural signs of their guilt.

Violence

Macbeth is a famously violent play. Interestingly, most of the killings take place offstage, but throughout the play, the characters provide the audience with gory descriptions of the carnage, from the opening scene where the captain describes Macbeth and Banquo wading in blood on the battlefield, to the endless references to the bloodstained hands of Macbeth and his wife. The action is bookended by a pair of bloody battles: in the first, Macbeth defeats the invaders; in the second, he is slain and beheaded by Macduff. In between is a series of murders: Duncan, Duncan’s chamberlains, Banquo, Lady Macduff, and Macduff’s son all come to bloody ends. By the end of the action, blood seems to be everywhere.

Prophecy

Prophecy sets Macbeth’s plot in motion—namely, the witches’ prophecy that Macbeth will first become thane of Cawdor and then king. The weird sisters make a number of other prophecies: they tell us that Banquo’s heirs will be kings, that Macbeth should beware Macduff, that Macbeth is safe till Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane, and that no man born of woman can harm Macbeth. Save for the prophecy about Banquo’s heirs, all of these predictions are fulfilled within the course of the play. Still, it is left deliberately ambiguous whether some of them are self-fulfilling—for example, whether Macbeth wills himself to be king or is fated to be king. Additionally, as the Birnam Wood and “born of woman” prophecies make clear, the prophecies must be interpreted as riddles, since they do not always mean what they seem to mean.

Answer 78

A

Blood

Blood is everywhere in Macbeth, beginning with the opening battle between the Scots and the Norwegian invaders, which is described in harrowing terms by the wounded captain in Act 1, scene 2. Once Macbeth and Lady Macbeth embark upon their murderous journey, blood comes to symbolize their guilt, and they begin to feel that their crimes have stained them in a way that cannot be washed clean. “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand?” Macbeth cries after he has killed Duncan, even as his wife scolds him and says that a little water will do the job (2.2.58–59). Later, though, she comes to share his horrified sense of being stained: “Out, damned spot; out, I say . . . who would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him?” she asks as she wanders through the halls of their castle near the close of the play (5.1.30–34). Blood symbolizes the guilt that sits like a permanent stain on the consciences of both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, one that hounds them to their graves.

The Weather

As in other Shakespearean tragedies, Macbeth’s grotesque murder spree is accompanied by a number of unnatural occurrences in the natural realm. From the thunder and lightning that accompany the witches’ appearances to the terrible storms that rage on the night of Duncan’s murder, these violations of the natural order reflect corruption in the moral and political orders.

Answer 79

A

Macbeth is set during the 11th century in Scotland, in the northernmost region of what is now the United Kingdom. At the time the play is set, Scotland was a separate country, although its proximity to England led to many struggles over who would rule the area.

Due to its far northern location, Scotland is often dark, dreary, and damp – the perfect setting for a play about evil deeds done under the cover of darkness. The play opens during a storm, with the Witches asking if they’ll meet again “in thunder, lightning, or in rain.” The lack of sunlight in the physical setting of the play reflects the secrecy and deception of the title character.

Over the course of the play, Macbeth moves from his castle in Inverness to the royal palace in Dunsinane. The most important action, such as the murder of Duncan, takes place indoors, at night, suggesting the setting is not terribly important to the action. On the other hand, the references to nature itself being out of order – “fair is foul and foul is fair/ Hover through the fog and filthy air” (1.i.) – suggest that even the physical surroundings have been thrown into disorder by Macbeth’s treachery. The sense of a disordered, unreliable setting is heightened at the end of the play, when Birnam Wood appears to move of its own accord.

Answer 80

A

Tragedy

Macbeth represents a classic tragedy in that its protagonist travels down a dark path of treachery and violence that inevitably leads to his own downfall and death. Like the protagonists in other classic tragedies, Macbeth is a politically noteworthy figure. He is also still essentially good at the beginning of the play, when his faithful service to Scotland in battle wins him the respect of the king and the honor of a new title, the Thane of Cawdor.

Ironically, it is precisely this respect and honor that trigger Macbeth’s corruption—coupled, of course, with the witches’ prophecy, which accurately predicted his new title and promised much greater rewards besides. This pairing of prophecy and realization amplifies Macbeth’s ambition. Although many critics see Macbeth’s ambition as a classic example of a tragic flaw, others dispute whether Macbeth’s lust for power is, in fact, a tragic flaw. Shakespeare scholar Jesse M. Lander notes that in the play ambition and treachery are not unique to Macbeth. Instead, they “permeate the entire world of the play.” On this reading, even though Macbeth possesses an unusual concentration of it, ambition is not so much a fatal flaw as part of the social fabric.

Although in many respects the play follows the classic definition of tragedy, Macbeth is notable for being the only tragedy Shakespeare wrote where the villain is also the hero. Macbeth may start out as a good person, but once his ambition gets the better of him and he commits his first act of treachery, he becomes the play’s primary source of evil. After he murders Duncan, Macbeth feels compelled to keep killing in order to cover up his first crime and maintain his grip on power. Each new act of violence results in Macbeth’s growing detachment from reality as well as increased chaos in the kingdom of Scotland.

Restoring order to the land requires Macbeth’s death. And although Macbeth does eventually die for his crimes, he remains unusual as a tragic protagonist in that, from the very beginning of the play, he willingly embraces evil despite also recognizing that it will result in his “deep damnation” (1.7.20). This contradiction creates an important interpretive problem. How can we, as an audience, empathize with such a reprobate protagonist? Or, put another way, how is it possible for the play to feel tragic when the protagonist so obviously deserves his downfall?

Answer 81

A

an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly; an indirect or passing reference.

Mythological

> Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? (2.2.60–61)

This is an allusion to Neptune, the Roman god of the sea.

Answer 82

A

Some of the most celebrated language in Macbeth can be found in the speeches of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, both of whom begin the play speaking in an energetic and fluent style, but end the play with more halting and cryptic language. Macbeth’s first soliloquy has a strong sense of forward momentum, made possible in part by the lack of line-end punctuation and in part by Shakespeare’s use of alliteration, consonance, and assonance:

> If th’ assassination
Could trammel up the consequence and catch
With his surcease success, that but this blow
Might be the be-all and the end-all here,
But here, upon this bank and shoal of time,
We’d jump the life to come. (1.7.2–7)

In this speech, Macbeth considers the moral and pragmatic challenges that might emerge as a result of his plot to assassinate Duncan. Yet despite the complexity of his considerations and hesitations, Macbeth’s speech has an energetic quality that makes him seem more sure of his plan than his words otherwise indicate. Later in this scene, as Macbeth’s hesitancy grows, Lady Macbeth echoes his earlier surety. She tells her husband that she would never break her promise to him, no matter how foul:

> I would, while [the babe] was smiling in my face,
Have plucked my nipple from his boneless gums
And dashed the brains out, had I so sworn as you
Have done to this. (1.7.56–59)

Though this passage exhibits less wordplay and musicality than Macbeth’s, it demonstrates a similar fluency and forward momentum that, in turn, indicates a sense of certainty. In spite of all possible hesitations, the Macbeths’ language makes Duncan’s murder seem inevitable.

Near the play’s end, as Macbeth and Lady Macbeth increasingly lose touch with reality, their style of speaking grows more and more halting and cryptic. In the first scene of Act 5, Lady Macbeth sleepwalks anxiously. A doctor and a gentlewoman look on as, in her dreams, she relives the night of Duncan’s assassination and attempts to wash her hands of his blood: “Out, damned spot! Out, I say! One, two. Why, then / ’tis time to do ‘t. Hell is murky!—Fie, my lord, fie!” (5.1.31–32). In just two brief lines, Lady Macbeth makes six distinct utterances, indicating that her mind wanders quickly between recollections of the fateful night and thoughts on her own damnation. Macbeth’s speech upon hearing of his wife’s death has a similar quality:

> Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! (5.5.18–22)

Although less dense and cryptic than Lady Macbeth’s speech, these lines also feature the use of repetition to indicate ruminations on the inevitability of his wife’s (and his own) death. Just as their early style of speaking indicates the inevitability of Duncan’s murder, so too does their later style of speaking indicate the inevitability of their own punishment.

Another of the play’s major stylistic features appears in the language of the witches, who tend to speak in paradoxical riddles that defy clear meaning. The witches utter prophecy, and their language, so full of apparent contradiction, makes it nearly impossible to use for actually predicting the future. After Macbeth seeks out the witches in Act 4, he obsesses over their claim that “none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth” (4.1.80–81). These words confound Macbeth. Since every man must be born by a woman, he convinces himself that he must be untouchable—only to discover too late that Macduff was not born but “was from his mother’s womb / Untimely ripped” (5.8.15–16). The kind of confusion created by the witches’ riddling style reflects the play’s broader concern with equivocal speech—that is, language that is ambiguous and difficult to decipher. Such language poses a great threat throughout the play, and in the final act, Macbeth himself forbids further equivocation. When Macduff admits he had a caesarean birth, Macbeth replies:

> Accursèd be that tongue that tells me so. . . .
And be these juggling fiends no more believed
That palter with us in a double sense,
That keep the word of promise to our ear
And break it to our hope. (5.8.17–20)

Frustrated with the endless “double sense” that plays tricks on (i.e., “palters with”) him, Macbeth denounces all equivocal speech that breaks its own promises.

Prose Versus Verse

Macbeth contains a fairly small amount of prose compared to most of Shakespeare’s other plays. Where prose is used, it tends to distinguish characters with more humble origins from characters of noble background, to indicate sections of the play where the purpose is to deliver information or to suggest the onset of mental illness. In Act 1, Scene 5, the letter from her husband that Lady Macbeth reads out loud is written in prose. Macbeth describes the witches by writing that “When I burned in desire to question them further, they made themselves air, into which they vanished” (1.5.3-4). The letter is meant to inform his wife about Macbeth’s encounter with the witches, and prose allows for this information to be communicated clearly and directly. The prose format of the letter creates contrast when Lady Macbeth launches into her soliloquy in verse, signaling the boundary between the information she has received and her reaction to it.

In Act 2, Scene 3, the porter speaks in prose, which indicates his lack of sophistication and education, but also the bare truth of his words. Considering the placement of this section in the play, coming directly after the intense psychological drama surrounding the murder of Duncan, the prose also signals a transition to a more relaxed tone for a brief interlude before the murder is discovered and the tension is renewed. A similar effect is at play in Act 4, Scene 2, where Lady Macduff and her young son speak to each other in prose, plainly discussing Macduff’s death and what they should do. In both cases, the use of prose rather than verse lessens the gap between the audience and the actors. Since both scenes take place right before moments of violence, the creation of a relatable atmosphere heightens the impact and juxtaposition when the audience is plunged back into a world of mayhem.

The final use of prose appears in Act 5, Scene 1, where the doctor and a gentlewoman discuss Lady Macbeth’s madness. When Lady Macbeth speaks in this scene, she speaks in fragmented and incoherent prose, saying, “come, come, come. Give me your hand. What’s done/ cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed!” This repetitive, nonsense speech contrasts with the elegant and persuasive rhetoric she used when speaking in verse earlier in the play. Similar to Hamlet, in Macbeth characters suffering from madness use prose rather than verse, perhaps to signal they lack the wit to use more elegantly constructed speech, or to signal that due to their madness, their status has now been reduced. Since this scene captures how much Lady Macbeth has declined from her previous majesty and strength, the move from verse to prose captures how her guilt and suffering have caused her to become a shadow of her former self.

Answer 83

A

Macbeth opens not with the main character, but with a scene between the three witches, creating a distance between the audience and Macbeth and his wife. After this brief scene, however, we see the action mostly from the point of view of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. We are initially sympathetic to Macbeth because we see him grappling with the meaning of the witches’ prophecy both in dialogue and privately. He speaks in asides that the audience can hear but that the other characters present don’t hear. For example, after meeting the witches for the first time, he says as an aside, “This supernatural soliciting/cannot be ill, cannot be good.” Banquo, witnessing Macbeth’s internal struggle, says, “Look how our partner’s rapt.” He sees that Macbeth is preoccupied, but doesn’t know the exact nature of his thoughts in the way the audience does. These asides separate Macbeth from the rest of the characters. By being so closely aligned with Macbeth’s point of view in the beginning of the play, we feel the full implications of his downfall at the end.

As the play progresses and Macbeth commits more murders, the point of view shifts away from Macbeth and toward his victims. As we become increasingly horrified by Macbeth’s actions, and have less access to his motivations, he becomes an unsympathetic character. The point of view focuses on the people affected by Macbeth’s violence, such as Lady Macduff and her sons. The second half of Act Four, for example, shows Lady Macduff with her son, and then Macduff with Malcolm. This shift in point of view makes Macbeth’s murder of Macduff’s family all the more horrific, as we witness it twice: once while it happens, and then again when Ross tells Macduff about the murders. The final act contains one more soliloquy by Macbeth, momentarily bringing us back inside his head, when he expresses grief over the death of Lady Macbeth. But this soliloquy is fairly brief, as he acknowledges, saying, “She should have died hereafter/There would have been a time for such a word.” The point of view then shifts to privilege Macbeth and Macduff equally, with Malcolm delivering the final words of the play.

The witches function as narrators or a kind of chorus commenting on the action of the play. In the play’s first scene, the witches announce their intention to meet with Macbeth before the audience learns anything else about who Macbeth is, which encourages us to think of Macbeth as a figure with some sort of special destiny in store for him. This very belief that he is somehow special and unique is part of what will drive Macbeth to gamble everything in his bid for power. However, as the audience knows more about the witches than Macbeth does. Before meeting Macbeth the witches tell how they’ve been “killing swine,” and conspire to sink the ship of a sailor whose wife refused to share her chestnuts. We see the witches as powerful and vindictive before we hear their prophecy for Macbeth, and interpret everything they say accordingly. While Macbeth is flattered by the witches, the audience knows that the witches have little sympathy for him, and may even take a sadistic pleasure in his downfall.

Answer 84

A

The tone of the play is fatalistic, creating the sense that the natural world has been thrown out of order by Macbeth’s unnatural ascension to the throne. Violence or the possibility of violence exists throughout, and there are very few light or playful moments. The play opens in the aftermath of a bloody battle, and even though the rebels have been defeated, this opening creates an unstable and threatening atmosphere and a tone of justified fear. The appearance of the witches suggests that the world of the play is one where supernatural elements can torment humans and unleash dark forces against them. The first time the witches appear, their references to “fair is foul and foul is fair,” and “fog and filthy air” convey the sense of an impending storm, and the elements in conflict with each other. The setting, the references to battle, and the natural phenomena all serve to quickly create a tone suggesting that the world is a hostile place.

After Macbeth murders Duncan, the tone becomes even more foreboding, as Macbeth’s guilt causes him to become paranoid. Rather than appearing triumphant when he returns to his wife in Act 2, Scene 2, Macbeth is horrified. He worries that he was unable to say the word “Amen”, indicating that he has possibly damned his soul, and he also reveals that “methought I heard a voice cry, “Sleep no more!” (2.2.38). This moment could have been triumphant for Macbeth and his wife, but instead is the turning point after which neither of them will ever be able to feel a sense of peace again. Adding to Macbeth’s own paranoia and guilt, the world itself seems to have come unhinged from reality. Immediately after Duncan’s death, an Old Man reports that a falcon was killed by an owl, and Duncan’s horses ate each other. At the banquet in Act 3, Scene 4, Macbeth is tormented by visions of Banquo’s ghost, leaving him panicking that “the time has been/That, when the brains were out, the man would die/And there an end. But now they rise again” (3.4.78-80). The rules of nature no longer apply: sleep disappears; the dead re-appear; animals become cannibals.

By the end of the play, the tone has devolved from fearful and foreboding to deeply pessimistic. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth disintegrate from the charismatic and keenly intelligent characters we see at the beginning of the play into shadows of their former selves. Lady Macbeth kills herself, tormented by guilt. “What’s done cannot be undone, she says,” (5.1.60-61) reflecting her despair. While Lady Macbeth began the play as a woman who believed she could change the course of her destiny, she ends it without any sense of agency, resigned to the consequences of her tragic mistake. Macbeth persists in his arrogant belief that the witches’ prophecies mean he is indestructible until he is confronted by the actual truth of their words. When a messenger reports that Birnam Wood is in fact approaching Dunsinane, Macbeth realizes all is lost, and resolves to face his death, seeming to even welcome it. “I ‘gin to be aweary of the sun/ And wish th’ estate o’ th’ world were now undone,” he says. By the time he meets Macduff in battle, he seems fatalistically curious about how a man “not of woman born” will kill him, no longer convinced he is actually invulnerable. The final scene has a fatalistic tone as Macbeth finally accepts his mortality and realizes he is not above the laws of nature.

Answer 85

A

Most of the major events of the play are foreshadowed before they take place, although the hints can be incomplete or misleading. For example, when the witches first meet Macbeth, they reveal that he will someday be king, but they do not specify that he will obtain that position by murdering Duncan. The frequent use of foreshadowing also raises questions of agency and moral responsibility; to what extent is Macbeth responsible for his choices and actions, and to what extent is he simply fated to carry out these particular actions?

The rebellion of the first Thane of Cawdor

The play opens with the Thane of Cawdor, a Scottish nobleman, attempting to raise a rebellion against Duncan and gain the throne for himself. The rebellion is defeated, but these events hint that the political state of the kingdom is unstable and foreshadow Macbeth’s own plot to seize power. The foreshadowing becomes even more explicit when Macbeth is awarded the title of the disgraced nobleman, becoming the Thane of Cawdor himself. The audience suspects that Macbeth is going to follow in the traitorous footsteps of the man who previously held the title.

The witches’ prophecies to Banquo and Macbeth

When they first encounter Banquo and Macbeth, the witches predict that Macbeth will become Thane of Cawdor and eventually King of Scotland, and that Banquo will become the ancestor to a line of kings without actually ruling himself. These prophecies foreshadow events that will happen later in the play, such as the murder of Duncan and the escape of Fleance. Macbeth does not simply wait to see if the predicted events will come to pass, but shapes his actions toward either encouraging them to happen or trying to prevent them (for example, he plans to kill Banquo and Fleance to make sure the prophecy does not come true).

Macbeth hearing a voice cry “Sleep no more!”

When Macbeth tells his wife about his experience murdering Duncan, he says that he thought he heard a voice cry out “Sleep no more!” This statement implies Macbeth will never again be at peace or have a clean conscience, and will never be able to rest easy. The statement foreshadows the guilt and paranoia that will torment both Macbeth and his wife for the rest of the play. It also more literally foreshadows Macbeth’s insomnia and Lady Macbeth’s sleep-walking as symptoms of their guilty consciences.

Macbeth’s bloody hands

When Macbeth first meets his wife after murdering Duncan, his hands are covered in blood. This image foreshadows the fact that Macbeth is going to commit more violent acts. It also foreshadows how Lady Macbeth’s guilt will eventually drive her mad. Later in the play, she will hallucinate that she is perpetually washing her hands, unable to clean them, which symbolizes her inability to find peace after her involvement in the murder. When Lady Macbeth states, “What, will these hands ne’er be clean?” (5.1.39), she demonstrates that she is suffering the torment foreshadowed on the night of the murder.

Predictions about threats to Macbeth

In Act 4, Scene 1, the witches make a number of predictions that Macbeth interprets as being in his favor. For example, they predict that no one borne of a woman will harm him. These predictions serve as ironic foreshadowing because they hint at events to come later, including Macbeth’s death at the hands of Macduff, and show how Macbeth misinterprets prophecies based on his own arrogance. Because he wants to believe that he will be able to maintain power, he makes assumptions about what the prophecies are predicting and then uses these assumptions to justify continuing to commit crimes. does not simply hint at what events will come, but shapes the events of the plot based on how characters respond to what they believe is being predicted.

Answer 86

A

Evil and the supernatural in Macbeth

Witches and witchcraft were thought to be real in Shakespeare’s time

In Shakespeare’s time, the powers of evil were thought to be absolutely real; to most people Hell was an actual place and the Devil a constant threat to their souls. In particular there was a fascination with witches and witchcraft. Hundreds of innocent people (mostly women) were executed as suspected witches. The interest came from the very top, led by King James I himself who published a book on the subject called Demonology. When Shakespeare came to write his play, he knew that his audience would find the theme of evil and the supernatural very interesting indeed.

How is this shown in the play?

In Macbeth, William Shakespeare uses evil and the supernatural as a background to all the events which take place. Some of the key aspects are:

wicked thoughts and actions
the activities of the Witches
the disruption of nature

Answer 87

A

In Macbeth, things are never quite what they seem. Characters say one thing yet mean something else and use euphemisms to hide reality. Wicked and violent acts such as murder are covered up or the blame is shifted onto someone else. The Witches mislead Macbeth, or they at least make suggestions which allow him to mislead himself. Ghosts, visions and apparitions occur regularly. All of these things contribute to the many contrasts which exist in the play; almost nothing is as it should be.

How is this shown in the play?

In Macbeth, Shakespeare examines how appearances can be deceptive and that the reality behind them is often unpleasant. Some of the key aspects are:

seeing things
sleep and dreams
fake hospitality

Answer 88

A

Ambition and power in Macbeth

Macbeth’s ambition and desire for power lead to his downfall

Shakespeare set Macbeth in the distant past and in a part of Britain that few of his audience would have been familiar with. Scotland is shown as a wild and savage place ruled over by a weak king (Duncan) who relies on his warrior thanes to keep control. However, through the character of Macbeth, Shakespeare goes on to show that having too much ambition and total control of power is just as bad. By the end of the play Malcolm has become King and it seems likely that he will be much fairer and treat his people justly.

How is this shown in the play?

In Macbeth, William Shakespeare examines the good and bad aspects of ambition and power. Some of the key aspects are:

the fatal flaw
leadership
greed

Answer 89

A

Abuse of Power and Kingship

With the unexpected ascension of James I to the throne, the question of what makes a good king was a popular topic in England. The country was very much divided about how it should be run. There was the ongoing religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics. Some were pleased for James to be king but others were not. In Macbeth, Shakespeare compares different characters and their approaches to their reigns. Some are successful and others aren’t, which could be Shakespeare’s way of demonstrating which qualities he felt were the most important in a good monarch.

Kingship and power are intrinsically linked within the play. The possibility of ascending the throne is the driving force behind the motivations of many of the characters (much like in Game of Thrones).

Shakespeare contrasts the way the characters behave towards this possibility of power, and also how characters act once they gain power. He contrasts the behaviour of a righteous and just king (Duncan) with one who is violent and abuses his power (Macbeth). When studying the play it’s important to consider why Shakespeare does this.

Duncan

Duncan possesses all the qualities of a great king: he is noble, nurturing, responsible, and a strong leader. His successful reign emphasises how disastrous Macbeth is as a king.

Benevolent ruler
Duncan is shown to be a
just and benevolent
(kind) ruler, demonstrating
important aspects of kingship by telling his court, “Signs of nobleness like stars shall shine / On all deservers,” (1.4), meaning he is willing to reward all those who do good. It can be interpreted that he is saying that virtue and nobility are visible traits in a person, distinguishing them from others. The simile “like stars shall shine” connotes divine power, implying they will be rewarded in the afterlife as well as now. It aligns “deservers” with God.

Duncan is portrayed as someone who is invested in his followers, as he says, “I have begun to plant thee and will labour / To make thee full of growing,” to which Banquo replies, “There if I grow, / The harvest is your own,” (1.4). He is dedicated to self-improvement and the success of others. The semantic field of agriculture connotes new life and nourishment, presenting Duncan as nurturing and considerate.

Duncan is such a successful monarch that even those who seek to kill him admire the way he rules. Macbeth outlines Duncan’s honourable qualities: he “Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been / So clear in his great office, that his virtues / Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against / The deep damnation of his taking-off,” (1.7). Thereby acknowledging that Duncan is a good king.

Fair
Shakespeare shows how Duncan governs fairly to do what is best for his country.

➔ He rewards those who do good, telling Macbeth, “More is thy due than more than all can pay,” (1.4).

➔ At the same time, he punishes traitors, ordering the execution of the Thane of Cawdor for his acts of treason: “Go pronounce his present death / And with his former title greet Macbeth,” (1.2).

This exchange of “title[s]” at the beginning of the play presents the audience with a country that is stable and balanced. Duncan’s court appears to be the pinnacle of justice. However, this scene also foreshadows Macbeth’s betrayal.

Produces an Heir
The Jacobean audience would have known the trouble that a monarch dying without an heir would have created. Elizabeth I died without an heir which resulted in a big change to the

way Britain was ruled by her successor. By providing the country with an heir, Duncan was ensuring political stability and security. He announces that his son Macolm will be his heir-apparent: “We will establish our estate upon / Our eldest, Malcolm,” (1.4). Shakespeare thus establishes Duncan as a trustworthy king and provides a vision of the safe future. Obviously this is ruined by Macbeth.

Too trusting?
It seems that Duncan is too trusting and dependent on others to be a perfect king. Rather than leading his men into battle he trusts others to do so for him, and he relies heavily on his Thanes to help maintain order.

When he reflects on the previous Thane of Cawdor’s death, he says, “There’s no art / To find the mind’s construction in the face. / He was a gentleman on whom I built / An absolute trust,” (1.4). He had placed his confidence in a man who betrayed him to foreign armies, suggesting he has a poor judge of character. There is some dramatic irony in this statement, for Macbeth is plotting to murder him.

Doesn’t learn from his mistakes
Macbeth is another one of Duncan’s trusted Thanes and is called his “valiant cousin, worthy gentleman” (1.2). This means the betrayal repeats itself and Duncan doesn’t learn from his mistakes.

However, the line “There’s no art / To find the mind’s construction in the face” implies it is impossible to see through someone’s deception. Shakespeare suggests the evil and treachery of others makes it impossible for a king to be wholly good. Kindness and respect are vulnerable to deceit. In theory, Duncan would be the perfect king, but in reality he cannot contend with the wickedness of his peers.

Answer 90

A

Macbeth

At the start of the play Macbeth has the ideal qualities of a noble king. The Captain calls him “brave Macbeth”, “Bellona’s bridegroom”, and “Valour’s minion” (1.2), proving how admired and impressive Macbeth is. “Brave” and “valour” both imply that he has a strength of character beyond being good in battle which would be ideal as a leader. This makes it ironic that he later commits the cowardly act of murdering Duncan in his sleep.

Ascension to the throne
But these noble traits seem to disappear. As Macbeth becomes closer to the throne he becomes more corrupt. By the
time he kills Duncan and takes
the throne his transformation is
so complete it is too late for him
to go back to being the noble
Macbeth we were introduced to
at the start of the play.

From this point on, the audience
are able to see the direct
contrast between the way
Duncan and Macbeth rule
Britain. Macbeth is the least
successful king in the play.
Even his ascension to the
throne is unrighteous, as he
gets there on the back of murder, lies, and betrayal. He is not the rightful heir. He doesn’t care for Scotland, only for himself. Through his time on the throne, Shakespeare explores how power corrupts the minds of men, and how impactful a king’s reign is on his whole country. He studies what it would truly be like to have a tyrant on the throne and how power draws out people’s violent natures.

Macbeth is the complete opposite of Duncan, both in the way he came to be king but also in the way he rules. Shakespeare uses this play to explore the impact of a King’s reign on his country.

Callous leadership
The audience is not given much insight into other peoples’ opinions of Macbeth’s leadership. However, as the soldiers prepare for battle, we hear reports of how “those he commands, move only in command, / Nothing in love” (5.2), and “none serve him but constrained things / Whose hearts are absent too” (5.4). This shows how unsuccessful he has been at maintaining order and trust in his people. His country has no “love” or “heart” w hich is representative of his own callous nature.

Macbeth acknowledges his ability to control others using violent means by saying that “I could with my barefaced power sweep him from my sight, / And bid my will avouch it, yet I must not,” (3.1) when pondering what to do about Banquo. “Barefaced” implies he could be shameless and outright in his murderous ways, while “sweep him from my sight” connotes a godlike control over reality.

No heir
Macbeth’s poor kingship is solidified by his lack of lineage and heirs. It is evident he feels emasculated by his inability to produce an heir, this is represented through his jealousy of Banquo and resentment of the Witches.

Remembering the Witches’ prophecy for Banquo, he complains, “They hailed him father to a line of kings. / Upon my head they placed a fruitless crown / And put a barren sceptre in my gripe, / Thence to be wrenched with an unlineal hand, / No son of mine succeeding,” (3.1). He resents Banquo because his sons will be kings, and he resents the Witches for ‘making’ him king without successors.

Callous leadership
The audience is not given much insight into other peoples’ opinions of Macbeth’s leadership. However, as the soldiers prepare for battle, we hear reports of how “those he commands, move only in command, / Nothing in love” (5.2), and “none serve him but constrained things / Whose hearts are absent too” (5.4). This shows how unsuccessful he has been at maintaining order and trust in his people. His country has no “love” or “heart” w hich is representative of his own callous nature.

Macbeth acknowledges his ability to control others using violent means by saying that “I could with my barefaced power sweep him from my sight, / And bid my will avouch it, yet I must not,” (3.1) when pondering what to do about Banquo. “Barefaced” implies he could be shameless and outright in his murderous ways, while “sweep him from my sight” connotes a godlike control over reality.

No heir
Macbeth’s poor kingship is solidified by his lack of lineage and heirs. It is evident he feels emasculated by his inability to produce an heir, this is represented through his jealousy of Banquo and resentment of the Witches.

Remembering the Witches’ prophecy for Banquo, he complains, “They hailed him father to a line of kings. / Upon my head they placed a fruitless crown / And put a barren sceptre in my gripe, / Thence to be wrenched with an unlineal hand, / No son of mine succeeding,” (3.1). He resents Banquo because his sons will be kings, and he resents the Witches for ‘making’ him king without successors.

The Death of a King

The reaction to Duncan’s death compared to Macbeth’s death is reflective of how both kings ruled, and how they were viewed by their country. The impact each death has on the environment expresses Shakespeare’s views on kingship and tyranny. He believed a good monarch was needed to provide stability, security, and progress.

Duncan

Duncan’s death seems to bring about a sort of apocalyptic chaos, showing how atrocious and distressing his murder is. The way the atmosphere is described even before Duncan’s death has been discovered implies that even the nature is affected by his murder. Lennox reports, “The night has been unruly […] Lamentings heard i’th’air, strange screams of death / And prophesying with accents terrible / Of dire combustion and confused events, / New hatched to th’woeful time. The obscure bird / Clamoured the livelong night. Some say, the earth / Was feverous and did shake,” (2.3).

➔ Lexis from the semantic field of chaos and destruction, such as “dire combustion”, “clamoured”, and “shake”, reflects how Duncan’s murder has gone against nature. It may also symbolise God’s anger and wrath at being defied by Macbeth.

➔ Moreover, “feverous” connotes disease, suggesting Macbeth’s deed has brought sickness to the land.

➔ “Lamentings”, “strange screams of death”, and “prophesying” are references to the murder and the Witches, echoing the grief and “tears” Macbeth predicted in 1.7.

Once the king’s body is discovered, Ross observes, “By th’clock ‘tis day / And yet dark night strangles the travelling lamp. / Is’t night’s predominance, or the day’s shame, / That darkness does the face of earth entomb / When living light should kiss it?” (2.4). Duncan’s death has had a

permanent effect on the weather and the daylight.

➔ The “dark night” symbolises the wickedness that now dominates the world.

➔ The reference to “th’clock”, “day” and “night” implies time itself has stopped.

➔ The semantic field of

*death and murder**,
“strangles”, “entomb”*,
“living”*, proves Duncan’s death has impacted the whole world, so that everything is murderous or tainted by decay.

Shakespeare suggests that Duncan’s death disrupts the whole natural order. The Old Man remarks to Ross, “‘Tis unnatural, / Even like the deed that’s done. On Tuesday last, / A falcon tow’ring in her pride of place / Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed,” (2.4). “Like the deed that’s done” implies the state of the world has altered to mirror the murder. Just as a good monarch improves the health of his whole country, the death of a good monarch takes the whole country into decay and disrepair.

➔ The “falcon” is a mighty bird of prey, symbolising Duncan, while a “mousing owl” is a less impressive predator who would normally be inferior to the falcon. The incident is therefore an omen of what was to come, with Macbeth wrongfully killing the king, who is above him in the natural Divine Order.

Duncan’s corpse is described with allusions to piety and royalty, reflecting how the death of a king is the death of God’s chosen representative on earth. Macduff describes the crime scene, “Confusion now hath made his masterpiece: / Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope / The Lord’s anointed temple and stole thence / The life o’th’building,” (2.3).

➔ The adjective “sacrilegious” alludes to the Divine Right of Kings. Duncan’s body is described as “The Lord’s anointed temple”, conveying his sanctity and importance.

➔ By presenting Duncan’s corpse as a “temple” made of “silver” a nd “gold”, Shakespeare implies he wasn’t human. This means the qualities of a good king go beyond his mind. A good king can be identified from his very form and essence.

Macbeth

In contrast, Macbeth’s death is celebrated by his subjects, and presented as a moment of liberation for Scotland. While Duncan is portrayed with angelic and godlike descriptions, Macbeth is referred to as a “hell-hound” (5.8) and a “dead butcher and his fiend-like queen” (5.9). These all connote the Devil.

➔ “Hound” dehumanises him, suggesting he is savage and brutish. Alternatively, it implies he was a slave to violence or to his master, the Devil.

Macbeth has lost his noble titles and is universally hated - a stark contrast from his reputation at the beginning of the play.

Answer 91

A

When he hears Malcolm lie
about his flaws, he cries out,
“Fit to govern? / No, not to
live. - O nation miserable! /
With an untitled tyrant,
bloody-sceptred, / When
shalt thou see thy
wholesome days again?
(4.3)”. Macduff is dismayed
by the fate of his country
because of the king who rules
it. He suggests the country is
“miserable” because it is
governed by a usurper who
went against the will of God.
Moreover, the rhetorical question and answer he supplies, “Fit to govern? / No, not to live,” implies being an inadequate, corrupt king is a crime worthy of death.

Macduff presents greed and unchecked ambition as bad qualities in a monarch, saying, “Boundless intemperance / In nature is a tyranny; it hath been / Th’untimely emptying of the happy throne / And fall of many kings,” (4.3). Though he is discussing Malcolm’s supposed greed, this wise statement can also be applied to Macbeth, and predicts his death.

➔ Saying it is a “tyranny” acknowledges how people will go to any lengths possible to satisfy their desires if they lack restraint.

➔ “Th’untimely emptying of the happy throne” may imply that even good kings can be corrupted by power, so that they lose their noble qualities and the throne is no longer “happy”. It may also express how treason and regicide (killing the king) are the results of other men’s greed, as was the case with Macbeth and Duncan.

Malcolm

Ascension to the throne
Malcolm finally takes his rightful place on the throne at the end of the play, with a speech that shows he possesses the same wisdom and compassion as his father did. Though he is pure and youthful, a symbol of hope, he is not as naive or gullible as his father. However, we must remember that he chose to run away after his father’s murder which could be seen as a sign of cowardice. Is Malcolm the best example of kingship we see in the play?

Traits of a noble king
Malcolm’s wisdom and shrewd perception are demonstrated when he checks that Macduff isn’t a spy sent by Macbeth. He suspects Macduff of “offer[ing] up a weak, poor, innocent lamb / T’appease an angry god,” (4.3). The metaphor of ritual sacrifice conveys Macbeth’s bloodthirst, unruly power, and warped sense of his own importance.

➔ The juxtaposition between Malcolm as an “innocent lamb” and Macbeth as an “angry god” reveals the advantage Macbeth has as king, leading to a severe power imbalance.

➔ It also makes the moral differences between them clear, with Malcolm condemning Macbeth for being a violent, vengeful ruler.

He notes, “A good and virtuous nature may recoil / In an imperial charge,” proving he is aware of power’s ability to corrupt even the most moral of men. Shakespeare suggests it is important to be mindful and suspicious of those in power, ensuring they are not taking advantage of their position to punish those below them.

Patriotic
Shakespeare portrays Malcolm as the epitome of a pure, honest, and dedicated king. Like Macduff, he worries for Scotland’s future, saying, “I think our country sinks beneath the yoke; / It weeps, it bleeds, and each new day a gash / Is added to her wounds,” (4.3). The personification of Scotland again emphasises its importance to Malcolm, treating it as a loved one or vulnerable person, and reflects how a country can suffer in the same way a person can.

Development of the Theme

The idea of kingship and what it takes to be king is introduced as soon as the Witches give their prophecy to Macbeth. Kingship can be seen as the destination or goal of all the action in the play.

The political action surrounding the monarchy is an allegory for Britain’s own history and current climate. Kingship is associated with violence and chaos, but also order and justice. It all depends on who is in charge. It could be argued that who is king isn’t relevant to the main purpose of the play’s plot. It is the push and pull for power between opposing sides that drives the plot forward.

In the play, Shakespeare presents us

with four examples of kings: Duncan, Macbeth, Malcolm, and Edward of England. We never see Edward in person, but we hear of

his virtues and how he heals the sick in his own country. He also kindly offers an army to help overthrow Macbeth.

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The chaos and unrest of Scotland therefore unfolds in the foreground of England’s stable peace. To a certain degree, each king is an archetype of a certain kind of ruler. Shakespeare’s messages about kingship are as evident in the differences between them as they are in the actions of the kings themselves. For example, Malcolm’s wariness has more successful results than his father’s gullibility, while Macbeth’s “butcher” persona breeds a different atmosphere to Edward’s merciful healing.

Answer 92

A

Ambition

The plot of Macbeth is propelled forwards by the Macbeths’ manipulative ambition; both centre their actions around their ultimate desire for Macbeth to become king. Both characters exploit those around them in order to improve their position in the social hierarchy and are spurred on by the prophecies of the three Witches. Ambition is seen as corrupting and causes Macbeth to lose his nobility and ultimately become intensely violent. Nevertheless, both he and his wife suffer deep remorse and guilt over their actions

causing Lady Macbeth to ultimately kill
herself. Macbeth in some senses is a
*dramatic representation** of the
*devastating psychological consequences** of pursuing one’s ambitions without any regard for morality.

Historical context
Macbeth was (most likely) written in 1606, at the start of the **Jacobean** period. At that time, **societal status** was intensely important. A rigid **class system** and **intricate social hierarchy** meant that people, particularly those belonging to the upper echelons of society, valued titles highly.

➔ This explains partly why, when told he will potentially become the Thane of Cawdor and then a king, Macbeth takes this incredibly seriously.

➔ A lot of the tension in the play is caused by a battle over names and titles, as many of the characters are ambitious and keen to increase their social standing.

Modern Western society with its individualistic values treats ambition as a good quality. In contrast, in Jacobean and Elizabethan England ambition would have generally been treated as a dangerous quality to possess. Many people in Elizabethan and Jacobean times believed in the Divine Order, or Great Chain of Being, as it was alternatively called. According to the Great Chain of Being, everything in the universe has a specific place and rank in order of their perceived importance and spiritual nature. Rocks are at the bottom of this chain, and God is at the top. The King is the highest ranked earthly being. This order, as the name suggests, was believed to be divinely ordained. Anyone trying to rise above their rank was therefore believed to be going against God. Thus, in Elizabethan and Jacobean England, ambition was equated with sin.

Macbeth

The entire play explores the titular character’s quest to fulfil his ambitions, which he describes as: “black and deep desires” (A1.S4). Through Macbeth, Shakespeare explores whether ambition is useful, and how it relates to fate:
➔ Is ambition useful in any situation?

➔ Orareeventsjustboundtooccurregardless?

➔ Two key sources of Macbeth’s ambition are the Witches prophecy, and his

wife, Lady Macbeth.

Effect of the Witches
When Macbeth initially meets with the Witches in Act One. During their meeting the Witches reveal their prophecies to him. Although they don’t mention murder, Macbeth’s thoughts jump ahead to the possibility of killing the King: “My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical // Shakes so my single state of man // That function is smother’d in surmise // and nothing is but what is not” (A1.S3).

Tragic Flaw
One characteristic of Shakespearean tragedy is that all protagonists have a tragic or fatal flaw (translated from the Greek word hamartia). Characters’ tragic flaws set in action a chain of events in which felicity is changed into disaster. Macbeth’s insatiable ambition is his tragic flaw. Macbeth is willing to give up everything to become king. The murders that he and his wife commit cause both to grow mad with guilt. One reflection of Macbeth’s madness is when he begins experiencing visions of the bloody knife: “a dagger of the mind, a false creation” (A2.S1), which shows how the consequences of his ambition has caused him mental distress and near insanity.

Murder
Arguably, it is Macbeth’s ambition which ultimately leads him to murder Duncan: he sees it as the only option to continue on his ambitious path. In the final scene of Act One, Macbeth admits that it’s only his ambition for power that leads him to wanting to kill his King: “I have no spur // To prick the sides of my intent, but only // Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself // And falls on the other” (A1.S7).

➔ He compares his current situation to horse riding; ambition is the metaphorical spur he, the rider, uses to motivate his horse (i.e. make his plans a reality).

➔ However, as he notes, a horse rider may overestimate their ability when trying to clear an obstacle and consequently fall down. Macbeth’s admission foreshadows his tragic end.

Upon discovering Duncan dead in Act Two, it’s implied that Duncan’s children are the murderers, and Ross exclaims: “Gainst nature still! // Thriftless ambition, that will ravin up // Thine own lives’ means!” (A2.S4).

➔ Therefore, Duncan’s children are going a “[a]gainst nature” in killing their father, simply in the pursuit of their supposed ambition. The audience is obviously aware that it was in fact Macbeth who killed Duncan; so it questions whether it is also against nature for Macbeth to kill someone he respected and was indebted to, just in the hope of fulfilling his ambition. Ross’ exclamation also implies that ambition is an unnatural phenomenon.

➔ He justifies all his actions in Act Three, arguing that they’re “For mine own good” (A3.S4).

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Answer 93

A

Alongside the three Witches’ prophecy, Lady Macbeth is seen as the other motivator of Macbeth’s ambition to usurp the crown. She relentlessly criticises his actions and lack of masculinity, and it is her attitude which arguably leads him to kill Duncan. However, this ambition contributes to her own insanity and she eventually commits suicide.

Similarly to her husband, when Lady Macbeth first hears of the Witches’ prophecies, her mind immediately jumps to murder. She has both the ambition and the confidence to act on her desires, but doubts her husband’s capacities to do so. This is expressed in her soliloquy: “Yet I do fear thy nature; // It is too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness // To catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great, // Art not without ambition, but without // The illness should attend it.” (A1.S5)

➔ This is one of Lady Macbeth’s most famous quotes, and she says it in Act One, Scene Five, when we are first introduced to her. Shakespeare may have chosen to have her say these words when she is first introduced to the audience in order to foreground the fact that Lady Macbeth’s defining trait is her ambition. In contrast, we are introduced to Macbeth when he is in battle, which might have suggested to Jacobean audiences that he is brave and noble (at least

superficially or initially so).

➔ Lady Macbeth can be seen as the ultimate catalyst for the plot, spurring her

husband to commit murder.

➔ In the above quote, Shakespeare implies that Lady Macbeth believes that you can

only act on your ambitions and achieve greatness when you sacrifice or ignore their moral compass. She doubts Macbeth’s ability to do this; according to her judgement he is “too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness // To catch the nearest way” or, in other words, do what (supposedly) needs to be done.

➔ Evil is equated with “illness” in this quote. Lady Macbeth’s words suggest that she believes pursuing one’s ambitions generally necessitates doing evil deeds; evil and ambition and intimately linked.

Masculinity
Lady Macbeth, as a woman, would’ve been socially pressured to appear less ambitious and encouraged to hide her desires.

➔ However, while Lady Macbeth only encourages her husband to carry out Duncan’s murder and does not herself commit it, she can be viewed as more ruthless and single-minded in her ambition than Macbeth. After Macbeth receives the Witches’ original prophecy, he is not satisfied or resolved to act on it and seeks his wife’s counsel. Lady Macbeth then

pour[s her] spirit into [his] ear” (A1.S5.L24)

and directs his actions, all the while persistently questioning his manhood. Thus, while she uses gender norms to shame Macbeth into committing murder, the power dynamic between them is uncommon for the day - a wife would have been expected to be submissive and accepting of her husband’s orders. In a reversal of this, Lady Macbeth wields power over Macbeth and directs his actions. For this reason and as well as due to her ruthless ambition, Lady Macbeth would have been viewed as a masculine character.

A Jacobean audience might have been inclined to view her particularly negatively on the assumption that she is untrustworthy because she does not conform to accepted gender norms.

Desire for power

Shakespeare demonstrates in his play that overwhelming ambition leads to loss and suffering. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth end up dead, and prior to their deaths they are less powerful and less happy than they were at the beginning of the play. However, while desire for power ultimately corrupts both characters, it also drives the plot.

Answer 94

A

Desire for power

Shakespeare demonstrates in his play that overwhelming ambition leads to loss and suffering. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth end up dead, and prior to their deaths they are less powerful and less happy than they were at the beginning of the play. However, while desire for power ultimately corrupts both characters, it also drives the plot.

Guilt

Ambition is the play’s central theme and guilt is its result. Macbeth and his wife are tormented by guilt, so much so that their sanity is undermined. The apparition of Banquo’s ghost to Macbeth in Act 3 Scene 4 may be interpreted by a modern audience as a psychological phenomenon, the projection of Macbeth’s mind - a mind which has been unhinged by guilt (however, Jacobean audience were more familiar with and less sceptical about supernatural phenomena and therefore might have been more likely to view the ghost as real).

Blood
Blood is another motif in Macbeth which vividly symbolises sin, and thus is intimately connected to guilt. In Act 2 Scene 2, Macbeth encounters his wife after murdering Duncan and asks her a rhetorical question: “Will all great // Neptune’s ocean wash this blood // Clean from my hand? // No, this my hand will rather // The multitudinous seas incarnadine”. In other words, the sin Macbeth committing by murdering Duncan is indelible; it will not wash away. In fact, he declares, in dramatic, Latinate language, it is more likely to spread, turning the oceans red. Macbeth predicts that his guilt will grow - a prediction which indeed plays out. Macbeth also hallucinates blood at various points in the play, imagining in Act 2 Scene 1 “a dagger in the mind”. Addressing this dagger directly, he says,

. These vivid images would likely evoke visceral reactions from the audience and are visual representations of his guilt.

However, at the beginning of the play, blood does not symbolise sin and therefore imply guilt. Instead, it represents Macbeth’s loyalty and bravery as a soldier. Macbeth is introduced by an army captain, who declares that “

“I see thee still, // And, on thy blade and dudgeon, gouts of blood, // Which

was not so before”

brave Macbeth - well he deserved that

name // Disdaining fortune, with his brandished steel // Which smoked with bloody

execution // Like valor’s minion, carved out his passage // Till he faced the slave”

(A1.S2). In convoluted and gruesome language, the captain thus describes how ruthlessly

Macbeth executes - this is meant to be a commendation and a sign of his valour. Later in the

play, Macbeth changes from “noble” (A2.S3) to a “butcher” (A5.S8) and an “abhorred

tyrant” (A5.S8) and his hallucinations of blood represent his guilt. Thus, blood is a complex

symbol and its changing meanings mirror Macbeth’s changing character.

Answer 95

A

Gender

The concept of gender, and the roles the characters are confined to because of it, come up throughout the play. Masculinity is seen as the desired trait and the male characters are often offended if someone questions their manhood. Lady Macbeth, for example, asks if Macbeth is a “man” (3.4) and Macduff explains he must feel his grief “as a man” (4.3). Characters, particularly the Macbeths, feel restrained by the expectations of their gender.

Gender in context
In the Jacobean era, gender was a very strict and rigid construction and for the most part determined male and female roles within society. Gender was also an establishment upon which the hierarchy of society was built.

Women were expected to be

loyal and respectful daughters, wives, and mothers. Angering the men in their lives could result in being kicked out or killed, and it was near impossible for women to support themselves financially. They received little to no education, and were very restricted in their movements and decisions in life.

Men had a significantly easier time than women. They were householders, politicians, landlords. They were encouraged to be aggressive, particularly in their sexuality - male sexuality was celebrated. However, there were still expectations of how men should act. They were the bread-winners, and needed to be financially independent. Being a warrior was viewed as one of the most honourable things a man could be, and dying in battle was the idealised way to die, especially in the Medieval Era, when the play is set.

The Men

Within the play Shakespeare presents the audience with many different types of masculinity. You should consider why his male characters are so different and what message he is trying to give his audience.

Macbeth

Many times throughout the play Lady Macbeth taunts her husband about his masculinity. It is evident that Macbeth does not like his manhood being questioned which highlights his insecurity.

When Lady Macbeth accuses him of being a “coward”, he replies, “Prithee, peace. / I dare do all that may become a man; / Who dares do more is none,” (1.7). The plea “Prithee, peace” suggests that he cannot withstand the attack on his masculinity, as Shakespeare conveys how sensitive and fragile he is. It seems as if a man’s sense of manhood is dependent on the women in his life.

Lady Macbeth is implying Macbeth is not “a man” because he refuses to murder Duncan, suggesting that masculinity is proven with violence, but Macbeth disagrees. The line “I dare do all that may become a man; / Who dares do more is none” suggests manhood is tied to honour. He argues those who go against the natural order or pursue more power aren’t men, either because they aren’t human or because they aren’t noble. Shakespeare implies there are two ‘types’ of man that people can choose from: one is violent, the other is chivalrous.

Eventually Macbeth gives into his wife’s insults and accusations. Indeed, he becomes obsessed with proving his masculinity and changing into the man she wants him to be.

When Lady Macbeth asks, “Are you a man?”, he replies, “Ay, and a bold one, that dare look on that / Which might appal the devil,” (3.4). The words “bold” and “dare” emphasise his manly bravery. The phrase “might appal the devil” serves to prove he is stronger than the ultimate source of evil, providing an exaggerated perspective of his manhood.

It is important to consider the different types of masculinity Shakespeare portrays within the play and which characters represent those characteristics. It’s also interesting to note what happens to them. Both Duncan, the

noble and virtuous king, and Macbeth, the dishonest and violent king, end up dead. Does this mean that Shakespeare didn’t agree with either type?

Fear and masculinity
Fear and paranoia are deemed to be incompatible with the Jacobean view of masculinity. Within the play the male figures do everything they can to repress or reject these feelings and thereby retain their masculinity.

Shakespeare presents Macbeth as a conflicted character who struggles to keep his fear at bay. In giving into his fear, Macbeth becomes feminised and these contradicting forces add to his fear. After Duncan’s murder he is both scared of the man he has become but also of the masculinity he is losing.

Fleance’s escape
When he hears that Fleance escaped, Macbeth admits he is scared again, adding, “I had else been perfect; / Whole as the marble, founded as the rock, / As broad and general as the casing air: / But now I am cabined, cribbed, confined, bound in / To saucy doubts and fears,” (3.4).

➔ The use of the adjective “perfect” implies fear somehow pollutes or taints manhood. Macbeth is a flawed man because of his “doubts and fears”.

➔ The similes referring to “marble”, “rock”, and “air” portray men as powerful, strong, and dominant, like nature itself. “Marble” connotes sculptures or luxury, suggesting masculinity is flawlessly constructed by God.

➔ His “doubts and fears” overwhelm and surround him, and Shakespeare argues this is why Macbeth continues murdering others and being a tyrant - as a means of escape.

Final battle
Yet Macbeth’s attitudes towards masculinity almost do a full circle. In his final battle he decides he will fight to the death rather than surrendering or committing suicide. He knows he is going to lose but he fights anyway, suggesting that some of his courage and honour have been restored to him. He says, “I’ll fight till from my flesh be hacked,” (5.3), and later, “Why should I play the Roman fool and die / On mine own sword? Whiles I see lives, the gashes / Do better upon them,” (5.5). In the army, it was considered more honourable to die in battle
than to surrender.
Shakespeare’s audience
would recognise this
decision as the sign of a
noble hero and a real man.

However, it is possible that this scene shows Macbeth can only thrive in battle, thus masculinity is associated once more with violence.

Answer 96

A

Malcolm and Macduff

Though most of the play explores masculinity through the definition of violence and bravery, Shakespeare offers an alternative, deeper, more emotional form of manhood through Malcolm and Macduff. This form of masculinity seems to triumph overall, as Malcolm becomes king. He restores order to his kingdom even though his understanding of manhood differs from the norm.

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Controlling emotions
Malcolm’s attempts to test Macduff’s morals and loyalties are interesting in their presentation of the ideal man. He warns Macduff of “the cistern of [his] lust”, his “desire”, his “stanchless avarice”, and his “voluptuousness” (4.3), associating masculinity with unstoppable sexual desire. His fabricated personality is the epitome of the aggressive lust society encourages in men.

Macduff admits, “Boundless intemperance / In nature is a tyranny,” a line that is a perfect summary for the whole play, but also serves to suggest men are encouraged to be tyrants. Patriarchy grants men unconditional power, allowing them to indulge every need.

A revelatory moment in the presentation of masculinity in Macbeth is when Macduff learns of the slaughter of his children and wife. He cries, “All my pretty ones? / Did you say all? O hell-kite! All? / What, all my pretty chickens and their dam / At one fell swoop?” (4.3). The repetitive questions, exclamations, and broken speech convey his extreme emotional distress, making him appear unmasculine in the traditional sense. The phrase “my pretty ones” expresses deep paternal love, suggesting masculinity can be tender and loving.

Masculine response
Malcolm tells Macduff, “Dispute it like a man,” (4.3), planning to “make us med’cines of our great revenge / To cure this deadly grief,” (4.3) suggesting the appropriate manly response would be to wage war on his enemy. At this point, Malcolm’s idea of masculinity seems to be close-minded, in line with his
society’s. Macduff’s reply, “I shall do so; / But I
must also feel it as a man; / I cannot but
remember such things were / That were most
precious to me,” marks a moment of learning
both for Malcolm and Shakespeare’s audience.
Macduff implies that repressing his grief would
be a denial of his love, and would be unfair to
his family’s memory. Shakespeare suggests the
stone heart of masculinity is unnatural.

Answer 97

A

The female characters transcend gender boundaries within the play and are given agency by Shakespeare. Their words and the consequences they have are the driving force behind the plot. Yet they have rejected their femininity in order to have this power.

Lady Macbeth

Lady Macbeth’s character is highly significant in Shakespeare’s presentation of gender. The traditional subservient wife figure has been entirely rejected by Shakespeare, instead she is manipulative and domineering in her marriage. Her lust for power drives the plot forward and she attacks Macbeth’s manhood to get what she wants. Yet it’s important to note that her power is purely mental, while she orchestrates their plan she doesn’t commit any acts of violence herself.

Religion and the supernatural
Lady Macbeth’s manipulation of Macbeth associates femininity with the fall of man. Her bullying leads to Macbeth’s tragic downfall in the same way Eve convinced Adam to eat the Forbidden Fruit. She can be viewed as a femme fatale, an archetype of femininity where a woman charms and seduces her lover, to his detriment.

She hopes Macbeth will return home quickly so she “may pour [her] spirits in [his] ear” (1.5), showing how she wants to persuade him to do her bidding. The reference to

“spirits” connotes the occult, as if she wants to possess Macbeth. Shakespeare links witchcraft with a woman’s dominance over her husband, implying that it is unnatural for women to have power over men

An alternative interpretation is that Shakespeare is criticising how society denies women their own freedom and autonomy. Lady Macbeth only has to manipulate and possess Macbeth because her

power and status are directly tied to his. “Pour[ing]” her “spirits” into his “ear” m ay be a metaphor for how her desires can only be fulfilled by a male form. Macbeth is her puppet because she cannot do it herself, instead she has to rely on her husband for everything. Shakespeare could be showing that men bring their downfalls on themselves by denying women power.

Lady Macbeth’s Soliloquy
It is important to note that Lady Macbeth rejects her femininity within the play, and it is implied that this act is what enables her to pursue her ambition. Her most famous soliloquy is in Act 1, Scene 5, when she calls upon “spirits” to “unsex” her.

She asks to be filled “from the crown to the toe top-full / Of direst cruelty”, for her “blood” to be made “thick”, for “the access and passage to remorse” to be stopped up, and for “no compunctious visitings of nature [to] / Shake [her] fell purpose”. This first set of demands deal with the emotional or hormonal aspects of womanhood. Early medicine believed people’s emotional states were determined by different fluids in their bodies, the humors. Thick blood meant someone had a cold heart. Thick blood would also stop her menstruating, a sign of her femininity and therefore weakness preventing her from killing the king.

She goes on, “Come to my woman’s
breasts, / And take my milk for gall, you
murdering ministers,” (1.5). This addresses
the physical and visible proof of her
femininity more directly than before. She
wants all proof of it gone, as all signs are
obstacles to her plan. Her “breasts” and
“milk” are significant for motherhood, so
Lady Macbeth is rejecting her duty to be a
mother. This has historically been seen as
one of the most threatening things a woman can do, and is often associated with femmes fatales. Refusing to be a mother meant denying a man the ability to immortalise himself through his children.

This soliloquy is important when considering Shakespeare’s presentation of femininity because of what Lady Macbeth is asking for. Firstly, she is summoning evil “spirits”. This aligns her with witchcraft, which in Shakespeare’s time was associated with women who challenged the status quo or the superiority of men. Witchcraft was a serious crime that went against God, and here, Lady Macbeth is shamelessly and explicitly calling upon “spirits” to help her. This suggests all her actions in the play are evil, maybe even suggesting all powerful women are in league with the Devil.

Secondly, she relies on being “unsex[ed]” to be able to do all the cruel and violent things she plans. Therefore, while as a female character she serves to present femininity as powerful and violent, her language suggests the opposite. If she is successful in “unsex[ing]” herself, then her murderous behaviour is the opposite of femininity. Shakespeare either associates it with being genderless or being masculine. By linking being “unsex[ed]” with “spirits”, Shakespeare suggests you lose your humanity if you defy your gender roles.

Manipulation
The play centralises around Lady Macbeth’s manipulation of her husband. She frequently questions his masculinity and uses this as leverage to get him to do what she wants.. When she sees him afraid, she asks, “Are you a man?” (3.4) and “What, quite unmanned in folly?” (3.4) which perpetuates the idea that a man must always put on a brave face and not be emotionally sensitive. Although it is Lady Macbeth who convinces him, it is only possible for her to do so because Macbeth’s masculinity is so fragile.

Another way Lady Macbeth manipulates Macbeth is through their marriage. When she learns that he has gone against his promise she implies that she is breaking their wedding vows. She asks, “What beast was’t then / That made you break this enterprise to me? / When you durst do it, then you were a man. / And to be more than what you were, you would / Be so much more the man,” (1.7). By accusing him of “break[ing] this enterprise” to her, she accuses him of being a bad husband and breaking the Code of Chivalry. She implies she will only deem him a “man” if he kills Duncan, linking the validation of his manhood with the fulfillment of her own desires. In contrast, she calls him a “beast” for betraying her, dehumanising him and calling him a villain for denying her what she wants.

The Witches

A lot of the conflict and tension surrounding gender in the play is concentrated in the characters of the Witches. Typically, witches were known to be women, but in Macbeth, it is unclear if the Witches are female or even human. Though their characters are certainly linked to the presentation of femininity because of the historical association between witchcraft and women, it is debatable whether Shakespeare intends them to be female characters or symbols of ambiguous gender.

The Witches are an archetype of ‘ugly’ femininity. They represent the classic old hag trope, and they occupy the very isolated edges of society, meeting on heaths and in caves. Shakespeare supports the common notion that women who refused to meet the expectations of femininity would be rejected by society and punished for their actions.

There are three of them, perhaps symbolising an anti-holy trinity. Their ambiguous femininity contrasts with the masculinity of the Holy Trinity. Their prophecies are the catalyst (cause) for the murder of Duncan and the following chaos. Therefore, like Lady Macbeth, they seem to be ‘Eve’ figures, temptresses who lead men to their downfalls.

The Witches’ appearances are presented as grotesque and revolting because they aren’t purely feminine. Banquo provides a description of them, saying they are “so withered and so wild in their attire”, with “choppy finger[s]” and “skinny lips” (1.3). They personify the typical Jacobean perception of witches.

Answer 98

A

Development of the Theme

The presentation of gender varies greatly throughout the play. Different characters have their own opinions about what it means to be a man, to be a woman, or to be neither. What is obvious, though, is that gender can’t be avoided. It comes up time and time again as characters try to define themselves, define others, or understand what is happening to them. Gender was viewed as a sign of order and logic, which is why subverting these gender norms was so disturbing to audiences.

‘Macbeth’ is arguably Shakespeare’s most misogynistic play. All of the women, except for the supernatural witches, are dead by the end. The women are either manipulative conspirers who call upon spirits to “unsex” them, hags who talk directly to those spirits, or helpless mothers who are pointlessly slaughtered. Moreover, the main female characters all contribute to Macbeth’s downfall, tempting him with power or persuading him to commit murder. If Macbeth is a retelling of the Garden of Eden, the Witches is the serpent and Lady Macbeth is Eve.

Furthermore, the death of Lady Macbeth and Lady Macduff suggests women suffer from the sinful deeds of men. Lady Macbeth is driven to madness partly by Macbeth’s murder spree. At the same time, her death (or suicide) seems to signify her feminine kindness winning over her masculine or genderless wickedness. Similarly, Macduff’s sensitivity encourages the same compassion in Malcolm, and so these feminine qualities take the throne.

Answer 99

A

Guilt, Innocence, & Paranoia

Though it is the Macbeths’ unchecked, amoral ambition that causes their fall from grace, it is their guilt and paranoia that breaks them. Without guilt, they wouldn’t be driven insane by their deeds. Without paranoia, their murder spree might have begun and ended with Duncan’s death.

Context
Killing a king was a provocative
subject when ‘Macbeth’ was first
being written and performed.
Elizabeth I had died without an heir,
so James VI of Scotland was made
the new king of England. This raised a lot of questions about whether he was the rightful monarch, and who should be allowed to be king.

This political tension amounted in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, where a group tried to assassinate James and members of Parliament. As the king was the patron of Shakespeare’s theatre group, it was important that he pleased him. By illustrating how violently and deeply guilt destroyed the Macbeths, Shakespeare is clearly condemning regicide.

Religion
Jacobean Britain was a very religious, Christian country. People believed God was all-seeing, so would see every sin and crime someone committed. No one was exempt from His judgement. Shakespeare supports this idea by showing how the Macbeths are put through a sort of hell, despite their crime not being known by anyone else.

The Renaissance was also a period when people believed in the innate (natural) goodness of humanity. The Macbeths are destroyed by their own guilt, suggesting their innate goodness rebelled against their deliberate immorality.

Innocence, in contrast, is a virtue that Shakespeare, in keeping with Christianity, celebrates. The Macbeths pursue a facade of innocence while plotting their murders, and as they descend further into their web of violence, they long to regain their lost innocence. Malcolm, a posterboy of youthful innocence and virtue, is the rightful king of Scotland, showing how goodness is the correct way to be given power.

Macbeth

Though both are troubled deeply by their guilt, the Macbeths’ experiences of it and reactions to it are very different, and reveal their differences in character.

Macbeth’s guilt is focused on the murder, as he expresses his greatest remorse directly before and after he kills Duncan. After that, his guilt comes in the form of paranoia, and this sends him on a frenzied murder spree. Shakespeare suggests guilt and conscience are more powerful than ambition.

Guilt and religion
Shakespeare associates guilt with religion. While wondering if he should really kill Duncan, Macbeth acknowledges, “We’d jump the life to come,” (1.7). This is a reference to the afterlife, which Christians believed would be granted to those who honoured God. Macbeth knows committing murder will sacrifice his life in Heaven, making him fully mortal and abandoned by God. The threat of this is enough to make Macbeth reconsider his plan, showing the power religion and belief had over people at the time. Shakespeare suggests Macbeth should have listened to his conscience and faith rather than to his wife. Shakespeare shows the moral and religious consequences of being guilty.

Macbeth continues, “But wherefore could not I pronounce ‘Amen’? / I had most need of blessing and ‘Amen’ / Stuck in my throat,” (2.2). He is deeply distressed and upset by this experience. It seems Macbeth is scared because he has been denied God’s forgiveness, so knows he is damned. The phrase “I had most need of blessing” reveals his regret, for he is desperate to reclaim his innocence. The metaphor “stuck in my throat” evokes the image of a barrier blocking Macbeth from God.

Guilt is presented as an intense fear of knowing yourself and facing what you have done. After killing Duncan, he claims, “To know my deed, ‘twere best not know my self,” (2.2). The perception of himself as an honourable hero has died along with Duncan. He would rather be unconscious or forget who he is than look at what he’s done.

Regret
Macbeth’s regret is echoed later in the play, when Ross says of Scotland, “Alas, poor country, / Almost afraid to know itself. It cannot / Be called our mother, but our grave,” (4.3). Shakespeare shows how Macbeth’s guilt has clouded the country in uncertainty and weakness. Ross suggests Scotland is “almost afraid to know itself” because it cannot face what it has become. The same is true of Macbeth himself, meaning the king and his country are identical.

Paranoia
Paranoia is portrayed as a poison that is relentless and inescapable. Macbeth loses all his heroic qualities because of his fears, and he becomes murderous even as he descends into madness. He says, “For Banquo’s issue have I filed my mind; / For them, the gracious Duncan have I murdered, / Put rancours in the vessel of my peace / Only for them,” (3.1). Shakespeare shows that Macbeth’s ambition is punished, not rewarded. The metaphor “put rancours in the vessel of my peace” suggests his guilt and paranoia has polluted his soul. Similar imagery of corruption is used as the play continues: “O, full of scorpions is my mind,” (3.2), presenting his paranoia as infinite, small stings.

Answer 100

A

Lady Macbeth

Unlike her husband, Lady Macbeth is initially free from any feelings of guilt. Her journey in the play takes her from power and strength to weakness and insanity. Whereas

Macbeth’s guilt makes him more violent and brutal, Lady Macbeth’s guilt makes her go into herself. She closes herself off to everyone else, cannot be in darkness, and sleep walks as she is trapped in her own guilty thoughts. The way her guilt takes over is gradual but destructive, showing how even the most callous (insensitive and cruel) and cold people aren’t immune to God’s judgement and their own human conscience.

Rejecting femininity

Guilt and regret are presented as obstacles to following ambition. These two feelings are linked to femininity and thus Lady Macbeth tries to rid herself of her conscience when she calls upon “spirits” to “unsex” her.

She demands that they: “Stop up th’access and passage to remorse / That no compunctious visitings of nature / Shake my fell purpose nor keep peace between / Th’effect and it,” (1.5). This indicates that she is capable of feeling guilt, but wants to repress these feelings because she views them as weaknesses. The only way to overcome guilt is to not feel it, as Shakespeare implies guilt is too powerful to ignore.

Cost of guilt
The cost of Lady Macbeth’s guilt is shown to be endless paranoia. She says to herself, “Nought’s had, all’s spent / Where our desire is got without content. / ‘Tis safer to be that which we destroy / Than by destruction dwell in doubtful joy,” (3.2), which suggests she envies the dead for their peace of mind. “All’s spent” illustrates how there is a cost for being guilty of a crime, and may also allude to her mental exhaustion - she is “spent”. Lady Macbeth is becoming aware of the infinite cycle of violence they have got themselves into to satisfy their paranoia. Shakespeare shows that sins and crimes are never rewarded, so that the perpetrators are only left with their remorse.

Shakespeare demonstrates how guilt and regret can’t be escaped. Lady Macbeth tells her worried husband, “What’s done, is done,” (3.2), suggesting they can’t change their fate and will just have to live with the consequences. Shakespeare suggests that greed and ambition can’t predict the guilt that comes with making fantasies into reality. The line becomes a refrain for her, as later she mutters to herself in her sleep, “What’s done cannot be undone,” (5.1). The repetition makes it appear like she is trying to convince herself to let go and get the courage to face reality. The change from “is done” to “cannot be undone” gives the impression that her guilt and desperation have increased.

Blood & Hallucinations

Blood is a symbol of guilt and death in Macbeth. The Macbeths can’t escape it no matter how much they try to wash it away. Hallucinations and ghosts are also symbols of guilt and death, as they point to the existence of an Afterlife and the invisible world of the supernatural.

Blood as a motif
Blood is a motif used throughout
the play to show how the
Macbeths react to their guilt. They both react differently to the blood which reveals to the audience how differently their minds work.

Lady Macbeth believes that the simple act of washing their hands will rid them of both the

physical blood but also the mental guilt of their deed. She orders her husband, “Go get

some water / And wash this filthy witness from your hand,” (2.2), echoing this later, “A

little water clears us of this deed,” (2.2). Here, “water” is a symbol of purity and life.

She isn’t focused on what the murder says about them or the mental impact it will have, only the implications of if they get caught with blood on their hands. She worries that it will implicate them in the murder as a “witness”, so tells Macbeth to “wash” it away. At the same time, she only refers to blood with the euphemisms “filthy witness” and “deed”, suggesting she can’t confront the reality of her actions.

In contrast, Macbeth is shocked by the blood on his hands, asking, “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood / Clean from my hand? No: this my hand will rather /

The multitudinous seas incarnadine, / Making the green one red,” (2.2). He knows their guilt goes beyond the literal “blood” on their “hand[s]”, and that nothing can remove the metaphorical “blood” on their souls. The reference to “Neptune”, a non-Christian god, could reflect how he has turned his back on God.

Macbeth’s hallucinations
Macbeth is faced with the reality of his guilt in the form of blood-soaked hallucinations. A dagger dripping with blood leads the way to Duncan’s sleeping form, a premonition of the violence and guilt to come, while Banquo’s ghost points his bloodied finger at Macbeth in an accusation of responsibility. Macbeth’s famous soliloquy opens, “Is this a dagger which I see before me, / The handle toward my hand?” (2.1). The question shows that Macbeth cannot tell the difference between what is real and what is imagined, suggesting his guilt has already taken hold.

Macbeth asks, “Art thou but / A dagger of the mind, a false creation, / Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?” (2.1) , suggesting he is aware that he can’t trust e verything he sees. At the same time, though, he isn’t sure if the dagger is from his “mind” or not, implying he doesn’t know what his mind is capable of. It seems his inability to cope with guilt makes him hallucinate. The a djective “heat-oppressed” refers to the pressure guilt places on you. It connotes a fever, portraying guilt as a disease.

Shakespeare presents guilt as an intense psychological torture that makes reality break down. Mental illnesses, such as the psychosis Macbeth is experiencing, weren’t understood

in Shakespeare’s time. It was common to think the mentally ill were possessed.

At first, Lady Macbeth is dismissive of Macbeth’s hallucinations, telling him “‘Tis the eye of childhood / That fears a painted devil,” (2.2) and his “flaws and starts” are merely “impostors to true fear” (3.4) . In her final scene however, she is tormented by her own visions. She cries, “Out, damned spot!” (5.1) , showing she is trying to wash her hands of an invisible spot of blood. Its invisibility reflects how guilt doesn’t have to be visible or known by others for it to be real: she knows her own guilt and cannot unlearn it.

Answer 101

A

Sleep

Shakespeare uses sleep as a symbol of innocence and peace, it brings comfort and is an escape from the troubles of the real world. Sleep is also used to express and reveal the subconscious and the conscience. Thus, sleep is denied to the Macbeths after they murder Duncan. Instead, their nights are plagued by nightmares and “restless ecstasy” (3.2), suggesting they relive their crimes every time they close their eyes.

When the Macbeths murder Duncan, Shakespeare shows they have sacrificed any chance of serenity and well-being. It is concluded, “Macbeth shall sleep no more,” (2.2). As well as being the villain, Macbeth realises he has damned himself. He “shall sleep no more”, so he has brought torment and torture on himself. Shakespeare shows how those who are guilty of sins are self-destructive. Macbeth sleeping “no more” is a symbol of his active, haunted conscience. Sleep is “innocent”, a “balm of hurt minds”, so it cannot be enjoyed by a murderer bathed in blood, as Macbeth is.

Insomnia
Macbeth’s insomnia takes its toll on him, so that he longs for some semblance of peace, even death. He says, “Better be with the dead / Whom we, to gain our peace, have sent to peace, / Than on the torture of the mind to lie / In restless ecstasy. Duncan is in his grave. / After life’s fitful fever, he sleeps well,” (3.2), suggesting his attempts to feel content have only brought him more pain. Here Macbeth envies the “dead” and clearly mistakes death for a form of “sleep”, which implies murder and death has taken over his mindset.

Lady Macbeth’s sleep is disturbed by sleep walking, suggesting her mind is always racing. The Doctor notes, “A great perturbation in nature, to receive at once the benefit of sleep and do the effects of watching,” (5.1), suggesting Lady Macbeth is doomed to always “watch” the murder be replayed.

Answer 102

A

Light vs. Dark

Shakespeare uses imagery of light and darkness to explore guilt and innocence. Light is a symbol of innocence, enlightenment, and often holiness, whereas darkness is associated with the evil spirits that call for foul murder. Often, light and darkness indicate which characters are guilty and which can be trusted.

Darkness used to conceal
Both of the Macbeths call upon darkness to mask their crimes. The darkness could be reflective of them turning their back on God and goodness and instead siding with temptation and the devil.

When the idea of murdering Duncan first comes to Macbeth, he says in an aside, “Stars, hide your fires, / Let not light see my black and deep desires, / The eye wink at the hand. Yet let that be, / Which the eye fears when it is done to see,” (1.4). Duncan already established “stars” as “signs of nobleness”, so Macbeth is using the darkness to protect his innocent reputation.

➔ The phrase “black and deep desires” evokes an images of decay, and suggests Macbeth is aware of his immorality while he nurtures it. By asking the “stars” to “hide [their] fires”, it seems Macbeth is more concerned with avoiding judgement than embracing darkness.

➔ “Let not light see” a nd “Yet let that be, / Which the eye fears” s uggests the darkness is for his own benefit. He can’t bear to look at what he is going to do, even though he wants it to happen.

Lady Macbeth has a similar request when she says, “Come, thick night, / And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, / That my keen knife sees not the wound it makes, / Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark,” (1.5). She asks directly for “thick night” and “the dunnest smoke of hell”, meaning she is calling upon forces of darkness to help her be wicked, whereas Macbeth is more concerned with avoiding “light”to preserve his ‘pure’ soul. However, Lady Macbeth does reveal she is concerned about discovery, wanting to stop “heaven peep[ing] through the blanket of the dark”.

Development of the Theme

For Macbeth, his guilt and paranoia are constants that accompany him throughout the

play. As the play progresses, his guilt and paranoia worsens. This is reflected in how

Macbeth’s language changes. He uses more Hellish, grotesque, and supernatural imagery. His obsession with death and mortality increases, and he makes repeated references to his troubled mental state and lack of sleep. At the same time, he becomes crueler and more brutal.

For Lady Macbeth, on the other hand, her guilt and paranoia only manifest fully in her final scenes. At the start, she orchestrates the murder and silences all of Macbeth’s fears and regrets. There are subtle indications that she isn’t as confident and cold as she wants to seem, but her speech is controlled and cutting. Eventually, she is completely unaware of Macbeth’s actions. This division that forms both physically and mentally between the couple portrays guilt as isolating. https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

Answer 103

A

Appearance vs. Reality

The difference between appearance and reality, and the deception that is possible because of this, is at the heart of the
tragedy of Macbeth. The outward
appearance of the Macbeths as

trustworthy and innocent enables them to get away with their plot to murder Duncan and ascend the throne. Loyalty and trust are juxtaposed by the ultimate betrayal.

The ways in which reality and
appearance can be manipulated and
altered is facilitated by
Shakespeare’s use of the
supernatural. From Witches and
spells to hallucinations of knives,
blood and ghosts, the chaotic atmosphere and mental instability of the main characters is central to the play.

The Witches

The Witches are the first exposure we get as an audience to the chaotic and inverted world of Macbeth. The opening of the play creates a paradox, the contradictory statements are reflective of appearance versus reality.

➔ One witch says, “When the battle’s lost, and won,” (1.1) which suggests there are two sides to every story. One side loses, but one side wins.

➔ One of the most famous lines is, “Fair is foul, and foul is fair,” (1.1), the use of the conjunction “and” shows both good and bad can exist at the same time. Even the weather is reflective of this, as Macbeth declares “So foul and fair a day I have not seen”.

Here Shakespeare warns his audience that no one and nothing can be trusted. In a wider sense, he suggests that there are no certainties when it comes to morality. What appears to be good on the surface may not be.

Despite the grotesque outer appearance of the Witches - Banquo describes them as looking “not like th’ inhabitants o’ th’ Earth” (A1S3) - what is interesting to note is the Witches aren’t overtly violent or cruel within the context of the plot. They don’t tell Macbeth to kill Duncan. Instead, it is the chaos and confusion they create that is so frightening.

Shakespeare uses the Witches to show how human greed makes us vulnerable to deception and betrayal. Early after their meeting with the Witches, Banquo reminds Macbeth, “Oftentimes, to win us to our harm, / The instruments of darkness tell us truths; / Win us with honest trifles, to betray’s / In deepest consequences,” (1.3). This shows that humans can be easily fooled by lies if they are given with small truths. These contradictions confuse us and lead us astray.

Witches aren’t overtly violent or cruel within the context of the plot. They don’t tell Macbeth to kill Duncan. Instead, it is the chaos and confusion they create that is so frightening.

Shakespeare uses the Witches to show how human greed makes us vulnerable to deception and betrayal. Early after their meeting with the Witches, Banquo reminds Macbeth, “Oftentimes, to win us to our harm, / The instruments of darkness tell us truths; / Win us with honest trifles, to betray’s / In deepest consequences,” (1.3). This shows that humans can be easily fooled by lies if they are given with small truths. These contradictions confuse us and lead us astray.

Lady Macbeth

Besides the Witches, Lady Macbeth is one of the most significant examples of the difference between appearance and reality, and the conflict between the two. Her ambition fuels her deception of others and she ensures she disguises her true intentions in order to gain power.

Feminine vs Masculine
Initially it is likely that her outward appearance as a woman would mean the audience would assume her to be weak and therefore superfluous to the story line. However, as the play progresses we see the inner workings of her mind and realise internally she is stereotypically masculine. As she becomes more powerful and masculine she is ultimately destroyed by her weak mind.

The audience can see Lady Macbeth is
aware of the importance of outward appearance and how it can be manipulated when she teaches Macbeth how he should act.

➔ She tells him, “To beguile the time, / Look like the time, bear welcome in your eye, / Your hand, your tongue,” (1.5). Her use of physical features, such as “eye”, and “hand” emphasise the importance of outward appearance. The verb “look”, shows how he doesn’t have to be “like the time”, only imitate it.

➔ A similar idea is expressed later when she instructs him to “Sleek o’er your rugged looks, be bright and jovial / Among your guests tonight,” (3.2).

➔ She finishes, “Look like th’innocent flower, / But be the serpent under’t,” (1.5). Again she is stressing the important difference between looking like something and being something else. The juxtaposition of “flower”, which connotes femininity, with “serpent”, which connotes masculinity and trickery, shows how there can be a dangerous divide between a person’s outward appearance and inward nature.

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◆ “Serpent” is an allusion to the Biblical story of Adam and Eve, where it is a symbol of the devil.

Shakespeare demonstrates how appearances cannot be trusted because they are moldable, meaning they offer no insight into the reality of a person.

Shakespeare shows how appearances can be used for acts of self-denial as well as deception, keeping the conscience clear even though a crime has been committed. After asking the spirits to take away her inner femininity, Lady Macbeth says, “Come, thick night, / And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, / That my keen knife see not the wound it makes, / Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark,” (1.5). This shows how she wants to use appearances to her advantage by blinding others to her actions.

➔ The personification in “my keen knife see not the wound it makes” implies there is a level of self-deception to her plan, where her “knife” appears to be a symbol for herself.

➔ The semantic field of darkness, furthermore, implies our reliance on what we can see makes us ignorant and gullible. Shakespeare could be criticising his society’s focus on obvious, black and white truths.

Ultimately, though, her deceit is met with fitting consequences, as she is caught between reality and imagination. Her hallucinations are symbolic of her losing control of herself, which is ironic as she has tried so hard within the play to control everyone else. By the end she cannot control her mind and is ultimately destroyed by it.

Answer 104

A

Macbeth

Macbeth benefits greatly from the conflict between appearance and reality, managing to be viewed as an honorable warrior and king despite the awful crimes he has committed. He is a symbol for deception and facade, but also for the way people lose sight of themselves when they are constantly deceiving others. It becomes hard to tell who is the real Macbeth.

Descriptions of Macbeth
One of the first descriptions of Macbeth we get is from Duncan, who calls him “O valiant cousin, worthy gentleman,” (1.2). Macbeth appears to be the perfect subject and kinsman. “Valiant” and “worthy” are adjectives associated with honour and nobility, particularly in the context of the royal court and the Code of Chivalry, which the Renaissance admired. This is situational irony because we soon see that Macbeth is neither “valiant” nor “worthy”, demonstrating that the way someone appears through their words and actions reveals nothing about what lays underneath the surface.

Macbeth’s first line in the play is, “So foul and fair a day I have not seen,” (1.3), signaling how his fate is tied to the confusion of contradiction. Shakespeare foreshadows his indecision and moral ambiguity. Furthermore, the use of “foul” and “fair” echoes back to the Witches’ opening chorus, associating his character with the supernatural. We can guess that Macbeth might be an example of someone who seems fair but “is foul”.

Outward appearance
Macbeth, too, sees appearance as
something that can be managed to
meet his intentions. He tells Lady
Macbeth, “Away, and mock the time
with fairest show, / False face must
hide what the false heart doth
know,” (1.7), with the rhyming
couplet suggesting he finds
contentment in this plan.
Shakespeare implies deception is a
form of playing God because people
believe they can defy “time” and
truth, the most powerful forces
humanity is subjected to. The juxtaposition between “false face” and “false heart” highlights the divide between someone’s outward looks and true nature.

A similar sentiment is given later, when Macbeth says, “We / Must lave our honours in these flattering streams / And make our faces vizards to our hearts, / Disguising what they are,” (3.2). These metaphors about “honour” and “fairest show” suggest compassion is a performance or scientific process that can be reproduced without meaning behind it. The verbs “disguise” and “hide” imply the Macbeths’ lies shield them. This shows how they are scared of being discovered and losing their good reputations. Shakespeare suggests people use their appearances to protect themselves from judgement, accusing society of being afraid of intimacy.

Overcome by reality
Like his wife, Macbeth suffers from his exploitation of appearances, as he starts to be unable to tell what his reality is anymore. The appearances of the “dagger” (2.1) and the “Ghost of Banquo” (3.4) b oth convey his crumbling sense of reality. The evil, corrupt parts of himself he tries to repress and “disguise” start to express themselves in the form of morbid hallucinations and spirits, suggesting your true nature can never be changed no matter how much you alter your appearance. He can’t trust his own mind as a result of his deceit. The biggest conflict as a result of appearance vs. reality is within Macbeth’s own head.

Answer 105

A

Secondary Characters

The other, secondary characters in the play get their fair share of confusion and chaos when it comes to appearances. Shakespeare shows that it’s not just the Macbeths and the Witches who experience a distorted, deceitful reality. The whole world is upside down, and we’re all just living in it.

Duncan
Though Duncan is a good king, Shakespeare implies he is vulnerable because he isn’t wary of the difference between appearance and reality. He is too gullible.

He tells his subjects, “Signs of nobleness like stars shall shine / On all deservers,” (1.4), suggesting he believes a person’s good nature is reflected in their face. The imagery of “stars” shining like a spotlight implies good people stand out in a crowd, almost as if illuminated by God. The “stars” are an allusion to Heaven and God, suggesting there is a link or connection between God and His people because the “stars” can reach down to earth.

Macbeth, in contrast, wants to be in darkness to do his crimes, asking for “seeling night” (3.2) suggesting it would be obvious to Duncan that he’s not a “deserver”, but Duncan is unaware of Macbeth’s plots. He remarks that the Macbeths’ “castle hath a pleasant seat,” (1.6), calls Macbeth a “worthy gentleman” (1.2), and Lady Macbeth an “honoured hostess,” (1.6). He is taken in by their “pleasant” appearances. It is almost humiliating how drastically wrong his impressions of the Macbeths are, challenging these ideologies. Shakespeare suggests true evil is so dangerous because it arrives with the face of goodness. The most vulnerable people are those who don’t understand that the world is an evil place.

Symbolism of darkness
The distress Duncan’s murder welcomes into the world
is symbolised by Shakespeare’s use of darkness and nightfall. The pathetic fallacy, with furious thunderstorms and thick layers of fog and darkness that the sun can’t get through, creates an atmosphere of obscurity and fear. Before the murder takes place, Banquo observes, “There’s husbandry in heaven, / Their candles are all out,” (2.1). The night is dark and starless, an omen for the hopeless, devastating future to come. He suggests that even heaven is acting suspicious and secretive, so that the whole world is against him. Furthermore, it seems Macbeth’s wish has come true: the “stars” have extinguished their “fires”. This is significant because it suggests Macbeth has a supernatural ability to control his environment and reality, provoking fear from the audience.

Answer 106

A

Development of the Theme

Macbeth is introduced to us through the words of the Witches. The opening scene foreshadows the use of trickery and witchcraft in the play because of the Witches’ presence, but it also establishes Macbeth as an untrustworthy, corrupt character. Equally, his first words recall the Witches’ opening chants. The two are tied together, and their roles in the play complement each other.

➔ The Witches use appearance to deceive Macbeth, who in turn betrays his own kinsmen and friends.

➔ Macbeth’s motive for his deception is his lust to be king, as Shakespeare suggests power is behind all evil and manipulation in the world.

The hierarchy of power in the world means there is a chain of influence: the citizens of Scotland obey their king, Macbeth, who obeys the prophecies of the supernatural Witches.

Answer 107

A

Structure
An interesting structural point to consider is how Shakespeare organises the slow breakdown of order in Scotland as the plot progresses. In the play, the idea of appearance vs. reality is closely linked to the idea of order vs. disorder, or chaos.

➔ If appearance is a trustworthy, accurate reflection of reality, then order is kept. If not, chaos breaks loose.

The play opens with thunder and lightning while a battle rages, but this is just a glimpse of the chaos that is to come.

For the most part, Scotland seems to be controlled and organised. We see that Duncan is a thoughtful king who is good at maintaining order and honouring the hierarchy. This all changes once Macbeth becomes king. The sky is permanently dark, more and more people die, and horses try to eat each other.

As reality breaks down the Macbeths are haunted by more and more hallucinations. Ghosts and hallucinations are a symbol for the divide between appearance and reality, as no one can tell what exactly they are: imaginary, or real? Also note how, in their final scenes, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth stop talking in perfect blank verse. Their switch to prose indicates their mental instability. Reality falls apart, slowly exposing the villains in the story.

The final message
Overall, Shakespeare places his characters in a world full of chaos and confusion, but the resounding message seems to be that their world isn’t too different from our own.

Anyone is capable of putting on a mask and mocking the time. Anyone could look like an innocent flower while being the snake under it. But all of this goes against the natural order, and more importantly, against God. It is only rewarded with death and suffering.

By the end of the play, the Macbeths’ moods swing so violently, their decisions change so quickly, that it seems their masks have tricked even them. They no longer know who they are, their sense of self has been destroyed, because they have driven their appearances away from their reality.

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