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Biology > M2 chapter 3: Biological molecules > Flashcards

M2 chapter 3: Biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the four key elements?

A

Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen

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2
Q

what is a bond?

A

2 or more atoms joining together

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3
Q

what is a covalent bond?

A

bond where a pair of electrons are shared

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4
Q

carbon bond rules?

A

makes 4 bonds

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5
Q

nitrogen bond rules?

A

makes 3 bonds

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6
Q

oxygen bond rules?

A

makes 2 bonds

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7
Q

hydrogen bond rules?

A

makes 1 bond only

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8
Q

what is a ion?

A

where the number of electrons in an atom don’t equal the number of protons, so the atom becomes positively or negatively charged

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9
Q

what is the difference between an cation and an anion?

A

cation has a positive charge and is formed when an atom on loses an electron. whereas an anion has a negative charge as it is formed when an atom gains an electron.

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10
Q

cations: what does ammonia do?

A

production of nitrate ions by bacteria

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11
Q

cations:what does calcium do?

A

needed for nerve impulse transmissions and muscle contractions

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12
Q

cations: what does sodium do?

A

needed for nerve impulse transmissions and kidney function

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13
Q

cations: what does potassium do?

A

needed for stomata opening in plants and pH determination

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14
Q

cations: what does hydrogen do?

A

needed for the catalysis of reactions and pH determination

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15
Q

anions: what does nitrate do?

A

supplies nitrate to plants for amino acid and protein formations

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16
Q

anions: what does hydrocarbonate do?

A

maintains blood pH

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17
Q

anions: what does chloride do?

A

balances the charges of sodium and potassium ions

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18
Q

anions:what does phosphate do?

A

membrane formation
bone formation
nucleic acid and ATP formation

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19
Q

anions: what does hydroxide do?

A

catalysis of reactions and pH determination

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20
Q

what are biological molecules made up of?

A

polymers
(long chain of monomers)

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21
Q

what happens to electrons in covalent bonds?

A

they spend more time to one of the atoms than the other so one atom in the bond is more positive whereas the other atom is more negative

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22
Q

what is a key fact about the share of electrons between oxygen and hydrogen?

A

oxygen always has the greater share of electrons compared to hydrogen

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23
Q

what is a key feature of a water molecule?

A

it is a POLAR molecule

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24
Q

what is a polar molecule?

A

a molecule which has areas of positivity and negativity as the electrons are attracted to one atom more strongly than the other (eg water)

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25
Q

what are some characteristics of water?

A

high boiling point due to hydrogen bonding
when it is a solid it is less dense due to hydrogen bonds fixing their positions slightly further then in a liquid
cohesive
adhesive

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26
Q

what does cohesive mean?

A

a molecule that moves as one mass due to attraction

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27
Q

what does adhesive mean?

A

molecules that are attracted to other molecules

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28
Q

why is water so important?

A

acts as a solvent
is a medium for chemical reactions.
transports dissolved compounds in and out of cells
is a coolant to buffer temp changes in cells as cells need a constant temperature
stable doesn’t change state easily
surface tension is strong

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29
Q

what do carbohydrates contain?

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

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30
Q

what are carbohydrates also known as?

A

saccharides or sugars

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31
Q

what is a single sugar unit known as?

A

a monosaccharide

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32
Q

what is a disaccharide?

A

when 2 monosaccharides join together

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33
Q

what is it called when more than 2 monosaccharides join together?

A

a polysaccharide

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34
Q

what is the glucose formula?

A

c6h12o6

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35
Q

is glucose a monosaccharide?

A

yes it is a hexose monosaccharide as it is composed of 6 carbons

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36
Q

what are the types of glucose and how are they different?

A

alpha ajnd beta glucose
the OH (hydroxyl group) is in opposite positions on carbon 1

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37
Q

characteristics of glucose?

A

polar and soluble in water due to hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups and water molecules. this allows glucose to be dissolved in the cytosol of the cell

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38
Q

what happens in condensation reactions between 2 alpha glucoses?

A

the two hydroxyl groups interact
2 hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom are removed forming water
a glycosidic bond is formed between the molecules

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39
Q

what is starch composed of?

A

many alpha glucose molecules joined together by glycosidic binds.

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40
Q

what is starch?

A

a chemical energy store and the main energy store in plants , excess glucose from photosynthesis is stored as starch. it is insoluble which is good for storage as it doesnt allow water to enter via osnosis

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41
Q

what is amylose?

A

long unbranched chains of alpha glucose
angles of the glycosidic bonds give it a coiled structure which makes it compact, ideal for storage

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42
Q

what is amylopectin?

A

long branched chain of alpha glucose. side branches allow the enzymes that break down the molecule reach the bonds easily meaning glucose to be released quickly

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43
Q

what is the structure of glycogen?

A

has many more branches than amylopectin making it more compact and less space needed to be stored

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44
Q

why is glycogen so efficient at releasing glucose in animals?

A

excess glucose is stored as glycogen in animal’s
the structure has many free ends so glucose molecules can be added or removed, so easily accessible for quick release of energy

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45
Q

what is the structure of cellulose?

A

long unbranched chains of beta glucose linked together by hydrogen bonds to form strong fibres called microfibrils

46
Q

what is the function of cellulose?

A

is main component of cell walls in plants
the fibres made by the cellulose molecules joining together are strong and insoluble providing structure to the cell.

47
Q

what molecules do lipids contain?

A

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

48
Q

are lipids polar?

A

no, this means they aren’t soluble in water

49
Q

what type of molecule is a lipid?

A

a macromolecule

50
Q

what is a triglyceride?

A

a glycerol molecule joined to 3 fatty acids by an ester bond

51
Q

what is glycerol?

A

an alcohol molecule

52
Q

what are fatty acids?

A

carboxylic acids (carboxyl group with a hydrocarbon chain attached). they have long tails of hydrocarbons which make them insoluble in water and hydrophobic

53
Q

what breaks triglycerides down?

A

a hydrolysis reaction, as 3 water molecules are needed to reverser the esterfication (condensation reaction)

54
Q

describe an saturated fatty acid chain?

A

it has NO double bonds present between the carbon atoms

55
Q

what is the difference between mono and poly unsaturated fatty acids?

A

mono = just one double bond between carbon atoms
poly= two or more double bonds between carbon atoms

56
Q

what effect does the double bond in unsaturated fats have on the structure of the molecule?

A

the double bond gives it a kink/ bend therefore it cannot pack closely together, making them liquid at room temp and described as oils rather than fats.

57
Q

what are phospholipids?

A

a phosphate molecule - which is negatively charged so soluble and hydrophillic
2 fatty acids attached to the phosphate molecule- these are hyydrophobic

58
Q

what is the structure of cholesterol?

A

lipid with a hydrocarbon ring attached to a hydrocarbon tail, polar hydroxyl group attached to the hydrocarbon ring

59
Q

functions of triglycerides?

A

-triglycerides are used as an energy storage molecule
-bacteria use them to store both energy and hydrocarbon tails contain lots of chemical energy when broken down, 2x more than carbohydrates
-insoluble so stops water from entering the cell

60
Q

functions of phospholipids?

A

make up phospholipid bilayer so controls what enters and leaves the cell

61
Q

functions of cholesterol?

A

regulate fluidity of cell membrane as it fits between the phospholipid molecules to either pack them together or spread them apart

62
Q

how to test for lipids?

A

use the emulsion test
mix sample with ethanol
mix this solution with water and shake
if white layer forms on top lipids are present
clear= negative result

63
Q

what are proteins made of?

A

amino acids are the monomer which make the polymer protein

64
Q

what is a dipeptide ?

A

former when 2 amino acids are joined together

65
Q

what is a polypeptide?

A

when 2 or more polypeptides join together

66
Q

what is the structure of an amino acids?

A

a carboxyl group and an amino group

67
Q

how are dipeptides and polypeptides formed?

A

amino acids join together by peptide bonds, this process releases a molecule of water as it it a condensation reaction

68
Q

what is a primary protein?

A

amino acids held together by peptide bonds

69
Q

what are secondary proteins?

A

hydrogen bonds form between the NH and CO groups of the amino acids which causes it to coil or fold

70
Q

what are tertiary proteins?

A

coiled chain of amino acids coil further more bonds are formed

71
Q

what bonds can be formed in tertiary proteins?

A

ionic
disulfide
hydrogen
hydrophilic r groups pushed to the outside
hydrophobic r groups clump together

72
Q

what is a quaternary protein?

A

made up of several types of polypeptide chains held together by bonds

73
Q

what is a globular protein?

A

round and compact
they have a hydrophilic r groups which is pushed to the outside of the protein making them soluble

74
Q

what is a fibrous protein?

A

tough and rope shaped
insoluble and strong
unreactive

75
Q

what is a nucleotide?

A

a molecule made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogen containing base and a phosphate group

76
Q

what elements does a nucleotide contain?

A

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphate

77
Q

what structures do nucleotides create?

A

DNA and RNA

78
Q

why are nucleotides important?

A

they make up dna and rna which are types of nucleic acid. these are used in protein synthesis and to store genetic material

79
Q

what does DNA do?

A

used to store genetic information

80
Q

what does RNA do?

A

used to make proteins from instructions in DNA (proteinsynthesis)

81
Q

what other molecules are nucleotides?

A

ADP and ATP which are used to store and transport energy in cells

82
Q

what are the base pairs in nucleotides?

A

adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

83
Q

what is different about RNA compared to DNA?

A

it has a ribose suagr not a deoxyribose sugar
uracil replaces the base thymine
it is a single polynucleotide chain

84
Q

what are the 2 types of bases?

A

purines and pyrimidines

85
Q

what bases are purines?

A

adenine and guanine

86
Q

what bases are pyrimidines?

A

cytosine, thymine and uracil

87
Q

how are the 2 types of bases different?

A

purines contain 2 carbon-nitrogen rings whereas pyrimidines only have 1

88
Q

how is ADP and ATP different?

A

ADP contains 2 phosphate groups
ATP contains 3 phosphate groups

89
Q

how is ATP made?

A

it is made by adding a inorganic phosphate on to ADP and creating a phosphate bond

90
Q

how is energy released?

A

energy is stored in the phosphate bond in ATP. when needed, ATP is broken back down in to ADP and inorganic phosphate. energy is released by breaking this bond

91
Q

what is a gene?

A

a sequence of dna nucleotides that code for a polypeptide.

92
Q

what are polypeptides?

A

a polymer of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds
these form the primary structure of proteins

93
Q

what determines the order of amino acids in protein synthesis?

A

the order of nucleotide bases

94
Q

how many bases code for an amino acid?

A

3 bases called a triplet/codon

95
Q

where does protein synthesis occur?

A

ribosomes

96
Q

where is dna found?

A

the nucleus of the cell

97
Q

why isn’t DNA moved out of the nucleus?

A

it is too large to move out of the nuclear pores so it is copied instead

98
Q

what is RNA?

A

a single polynucleotide strand containing uracil not thymine

99
Q

what are the 3 types of rna?

A

Mrna
Trna
Rrna

100
Q

what is mRNA?

A

polynucleotide strand made in nucleus during transcription, carries copy of genetic code to cytoplasm.

101
Q

what is tRNA?

A

clover shaped molecules that act as temporary carriers of amino acids, bringing the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA sequence.

102
Q

what is rRNA?

A

it is a type of non-coding RNA which forms the 2 subunits in a ribosome it helps catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.

103
Q

what is the genetic code?

A

sequence of triplets in DNA which codes for specific proteins.it is degenerate- more codons than aa. some triplets code for the cell to stop the production of proteins

104
Q

what does DNA helicase do?

A

enzyme which breaks down hydrogen bonds between 2 polynucleotide strands, unzips the DNA to form 2 separate strands

105
Q

how does the dna replicate?

A

each original single strand joins with free floating nucleotide bases by complementary base pairing

106
Q

what joins the nucleotides together on the new strand of DNA?

A

DNA polymerase which forms the sugar phosphate backbone

107
Q

what is a mutation?

A

a change in base sequence

108
Q

what is transcription?

A

when a mrna copy of a gene is made in the nucleus

109
Q

how does transcription work?

A

rna polymerase attaches to the DNA uncoiling the strand as it moves down
this means complementary mrna can be formed
once rna polymerase has passed by the hydrogen bonds reform and the double helix is reformed.

110
Q

how does translation work?

A

sequence of mrna codons is read by ribosome trna carry amino acids to the ribosome with an anticodon. rrna in ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between the aa
after this is done the trna move away to fetch the other aa for the polypeptide chain

Biology (15 decks)

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